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Sunday, January 26, 2014

The Birthday Present

Celebrating Washington's Birthday


Birthday Boy and Commander-in-Chief



King George III

Believe it or not, there was a time when George Washington's birthday was not a celebrated federal holiday. Wait a minute, that time would be... now! In this blogger's humble opinion, His Excellency is more than worthy of a day for him alone and not shared with 40-something other chief executives. He was the first.  And the first is always (OK, usually) special. But Washington was more than special. He was the essential man of his age. With the exception perhaps of King George III and his inner circle, that was the considered opinion of most of the world (America and Europe). Later, even George III had some lauding comments on Washington eschewing absolute power and kingship. In 1879, the US Congress honored our first president by closing government offices in Washington, DC, on  February 22nd. Curiously, this had nothing to do with the budget. It was the first holiday honoring a particular American citizen, and it was celebrated on his actual birthday, not the Monday of. Back then, the holidays were about commemorating something meaningful, not just another 3 day weekend. In 1885, Congress expanded the holiday to include all federal offices and activities.



A Special Birthday Present


In 1931, the Chief of Staff of the Army, Douglas MacArthur, submitted a recommendation to Congress intended to present the first commander-in-chief with a very special 200th birthday present: the awarding of a "new" medal to recognize soldiers injured in combat. On February 22, 1932, Washington's 200th birthday, the U.S. War Department announced the creation of the "Order of the Purple Heart." 

General Order No.3 announced the establishment of the award, which would have a likeness of Washington:

"...By order of the President of the United States, the Purple Heart, established by General George Washington at Newburgh, August 7, 1782, during the War of the Revolution, is hereby revived out of respect to his memory and military achievements."

By order of the Secretary of War:

Douglas MacArthur

General, Chief of Staff


But why was this so special after all? 


 The First Award


Biographers and students of George Washington know that he is the author of many firsts, both in the military and later in the presidential and political arena. The sobriquet, First in War, First in Peace, First in the hearts... was literally true. This was the logical result of Washington's place and time in our nation's founding and the leadership he showed through eight years of war, the establishment of the US Constitution, and eight years of the world's first presidency. The list of things established by him in the military, civil and governmental spheres is impressive. One of these firsts is the nation's first military award. The award, originally called the Badge of
Washington's Headquarters, Newburgh, NY
Military Merit was established by Washington when he served as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army as the long war for independence was coming to a close. That order, issued from his headquarters at Newburgh, New York, stated it would be a decoration consisting of a purple, heart-shaped piece of silk, edged with a narrow binding of silver, with the word Merit stitched across the face in silver. The badge was to be presented to soldiers for "any singularly meritorious action" and permitted its wearer to pass guards and sentinels without challenge! I like that last perk. Does cutting the line at TSA count?


On August 7, 1782, this general order established the Badge of Military Merit:

"... The General ever desirous to cherish virtuous ambition in his soldiers, as well as to foster and encourage every species of military merit directs whenever any singularly meritorious action is performed, the author of it shall be permitted to wear on his facings, over his left breast, the figure of a heart in purple cloth or silk edged with narrow lace or binding."

Original Badge of Merit Replica


The honoree's name and regiment were also to be inscribed in a "Book of Merit." As it turns out, only three Revolutionary War soldiers are known to have received the Badge of Military Merit: Sergeant Elijah Churchill, 2nd Continental Dragoons; Sergeant William Brown, 5th and Sergeant Daniel Bissel, 2nd Connecticut Continental Line Infantry. Possible Yankee Doodle Spies connection: 2nd Continental Dragoons included Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge's unit - Washington's spies. Unknown if Sergeant Churchill was a member of that element, but it is likely.




The Legacy


It did not take long for the Purple Heart to evolve in scope and purpose. On May 28, 1932, 138 World War I veterans were conferred their Purple Hearts at Temple Hill in New Windsor, NY. Temple Hill was the site of the New Windsor Cantonment, which was the final encampment of the Continental Army in the winter of 1782-1783. At first, the Purple Heart was exclusively awarded to Army and Army Air Corps personnel. Still, in 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt allowed the Navy to award the Purple Heart to Sailors, Marines, and Coast Guard personnel. Later that year, the Purple Heart was made available for posthumous award to any member of the military killed on or after December 7, 1941. The original Purple Heart was awarded for meritorious service. But with the creation of the Legion of Merit in 1942, the award of the Purple Heart for meritorious service was discontinued and is now awarded to any member of the Armed Forces who has been wounded or killed in designated combat activities.

Today's Purple Heart


Saturday, January 11, 2014

Climate of Independence

Baby, It's Cold  (or Hot) Outside


This isn't about global warming (aka climate change). This blog is about the weather, an often overlooked factor by some who read military history. But serious students of warfare know that weather can often (and did often) play a vital, if not a decisive role in military operations. Examples are rampant: mailed Crusaders stifled by oppressive heat in Palestine, German divisions frozen in the snows outside Moscow and Stalingrad, or Napoleon's invasion turned back by an early winter. The list goes on. Possibly the most decisive and specific case of weather impacting warfare was the typhoon that destroyed the Mongol fleet poised to invade medieval Japan - the Kamikaze that gave its name to Japan's WWII's suicide attacks.


The invading Mongol fleet destroyed by the
"Divine Wind" that saved Japan


Weather's Impact


Like any other war, especially one lasting eight years as the American War for Independence did, the weather was bound to influence things. And since our First Patriots and the British did not have a modern weather system, they had to rely on the Almanac, early barometers, or local knowledge of past weather shifts. But mostly, they simply had to react to the weather as it occurred. That could complicate things when strange or unexpected spikes in the climate occurred. Year after year, in all four seasons, rebels and redcoats coped with extremes of rain, snow, heat, and fog - as well as tides, ice formations, and winds. Weather was capricious, sometimes helping or hurting one of the armies, and sometimes hindering both. Savvy commanders often tried to use the weather to gain an advantage or mitigate the damage to their armies from its extremes.  The weather sometimes shaped the Revolutionary War as much as political, economic, or logistical factors.




The Heat of Battle


During the Battle of Long Island in 1776, the hot and oppressively humid weather played a role and likely one of the reasons the long march around the Americans took place at night. When the humidity erupted into violent thunderstorms, both armies were slowed by mud and poor visibility, and the use of fire-locks was nearly impossible. The combination of stormy weather and the resulting shift in tides prevented the Royal Navy from cutting Washington's forces off on Long Island.  Washington leveraged the weather and escaped during the night of storms. And the resultant early morning fog prevented the British from observing his retrograde until it was too late. Weather (combined with decisive and heroic action) indeed saved the Continental  Army. The Battle of Monmouth was fought in unusually hot and humid weather as well. This slowed the British column and enabled Washington to catch them as they slogged across New Jersey. Washington's surprise attack at Germantown might have checked Howe's capture of Philadelphia but this time the heavy morning fog confused the American attackers and the British were alerted and rallied.  Later in the war, in the southern theater, hot and humid weather was a factor in Cornwallis's decision to shed his dwindling army of baggage and heavy equipment even heavy clothing as he tried desperately to catch the wily Nathaniel Greene in the Carolinas. We know how that ended.


The Continental Army retrograde shielded by a summer storm


General Frost

Much more widely recalled are the cold campaigns:  Nathaniel Greene's men dragging desperately needed cannon through the snowy mountains of New England to help win the siege of Boston. The winter at Valley Forge is iconic. But Washington's Christmas crossing in the face of biting precipitation and gathering ice floes no less so. The weather prevented two of his divisions from crossing but his main column used it as cover to surprise the Hessian garrison at Trenton. And the cold winter weather sent the British into "winter quarters" earlier than the successes of the 1776 campaign and an imminent victory portended.


The weather helped with the element (sic) of surprise at Trenton




Less well known is the winter war waged in the Jerseys after Washington retreated to Morristown for his own winter quarters. Instead of a well-deserved respite, it was the British who suffered privations as they struggled to forage for supplies.  The militias, and later the continentals ambushed forage parties, attacked relief columns, and bushwhacked couriers. The British commander Lord Howe took casualties he could not easily replace - and for no military advantage.


Cold Winter at Valley Force was
only one of many, and not the worst




General Montgomery
Perhaps the campaign most affected by the cold is the least known:  The 1775 invasion (liberation?) of Canada in twin attacks across America's harsh and rugged northland. Colonel Benedict Arnold led several hundred men through the wilds of main while General Richard Montgomery led a column through upper New York towards Montreal. The weather turned cold earlier than normal that year. Launching a northward invasion in the fall left the Americans suffering through rapidly cooling weather that plagued them all the way to Quebec. The weather dogged both expeditions as both columns struggled through a mixture of ice, snow, and rain.  Over six inches of snow deluged Arnold's column in a single night in late October. The weather alone had seriously beaten down the invasion forces by the time they rendezvoused near Quebec in early December. With more frigid weather on the way, Montgomery decided to assault Quebec, rather than besiege the city. Hoping to take advantage of the weather, the Americans attacked under the cover of a severe snowstorm. But the blinding snow caused confusion in the attack, which failed with the death of Montgomery and Arnold's wounding. Arguably two of America's best commanders lost to General Frost.