Block Island

Readers living in the New York metropolitan area have probably heard the broad weather report, "From Cape May to Block Island." The latter is much more than a meteorological geographic point. Block Island is a popular vacation spot for those wanting to experience a trip to Ireland or Scotland without the jet lag, or for those seeking a glimpse of America's earlier times. Yet, one of the most scenic and quietly charming destinations in America also played a small but significant role in the various actions of the American War for Independence.

Block Island sits in a strategic position

Background

The Narragansett Indians were the first inhabitants of Block Island. Their name for the island was “Manisses,” which translates to “Island of the Little God.” First noted by the same Verrazano whose namesake bridge spans New York Harbor, the small island sits in a strategic location at the east end of Long Island Sound, a few miles off the coast of New England. 

Adriaen Block

Verrazano wrote that the island was about the same size as the Mediterranean island of Rhodes, and this may have been the origin of the name of its parent colony and state: Rhode Island. In 1614, Adriaen Block, a Dutch explorer, sailed to the island and named it after himself. He called it Block Island, and it was in 1661 that the island was settled. Due to its geography, Block Island was a natural spot for smugglers, pirates, and during the War for Independence, for privateers. From its location, ships could quickly head toward New England or New York, or escape out to sea. From 1775 to 1783, during the Revolutionary War, the Block Islanders kept watch on Beacon Hill, which rises 211 feet high, by lighting fires to warn of approaching enemies.

Block Island - an ideal haven for smugglers

The New American Navy's Debut?

The Second Continental Congress created the Continental Navy in late 1775. By February 1776, the first ships of the fleet were ready for their first voyage. Commodore Esek Hopkins commanded a fleet of eight ships on an expedition to the Bahamas, where the British were known to have military supplies. After landing and capturing some supplies and two prize ships, Hopkins sailed north on March 17th. He sent one ship to Philadelphia, while the rest of the fleet headed to the Block Island channel. At that time, there was still debate over the role of the Continental Navy in relation to British shipping. Some wanted the Navy to focus on the Royal Navy, while others thought privateers should seize British merchant ships as prizes. Regardless, capturing prize ships was a main goal for all navies, since the prize money went to the officers and crew. When war at sea didn’t kill you, it could also bring riches to some.

By April 4th, Hopkins's fleet had reached the waters off Long Island and quickly captured ships, including HMS Hawk and the Bolton. Hoping to seize more easy prizes, Hopkins continued to cruise off Block Island that night, forming the fleet into a scouting formation with two columns. The right, or eastern, column was led by the USS Cabot, followed by Hopkins' flagship, the USS Alfred, which was the largest ship in the fleet with 20 guns. The left column was led by the USS Andrew Doria, with the USS Columbus following. Behind these ships came the USS Providence, with USS Fly and USS Wasp trailing further behind as escorts for the prizes. Besides the inexperience of his crew, the need to man the prize ships further reduced the fighting effectiveness of the fleet.

A Chance Encounter on a Clear Night

Nearby Newport, Rhode Island, was a British naval base, and the Royal Navy continued to do what it does best: control the seas. A large British naval force was assembling off Charleston, South Carolina. In early April, the Royal Navy 20-gun frigate HMS Glasgow, under the command of Captain Tryingham Howe, was sent from Newport to deliver dispatches to the fleet at South Carolina. Between 1 and 2 am on April 6th, with the American fleet headed generally south, Andrew Doria and Glasgow spotted each other about 20 nautical miles southeast of Block Island. Glasgow was heading west toward the open sea, en route to Charleston. Howe decided to "come about" (turn around) and reconnoiter the ships. For the Americans, Commodore Hopkins gave no signals, so the fleet formed no battle line. A confused maritime skirmish would follow.

Chance encounter on a clear night

Howe first encountered the Cabot. After some secret attempts at recognition, an overzealous seaman on this ship then threw a grenade onto the Glasgow's deck. The battle had started. Cabot, a small brig, opened with one ineffective broadside of its six-pounders. Glasgow responded with two broadsides with its heavier guns, making Cabot ineffective. As she drifted away, the Alfred sailed up to engage Glasgow, and again broadsides followed. Once more, superior British gunnery disabled its opponent. Glasgow raked the Alfred and sent her drifting directly into the path of the next American ship, the Andrew Doria, which also had to veer away to avoid the drifting Cabot. The movements of the last two American ships were uncoordinated, and neither could do much damage to Glasgow.

After the Battle

But with Glasgow now facing three ships, Howe broke off the battle to avoid being boarded and returned to Newport. Despite overwhelming ship superiority, Esek Hopkins had little to show for the night's work except damaged ships and Glasgow's tender. He brought these to New London, Connecticut, on April 8. The American officers faced much criticism, censure, and even military discipline for their less-than-glorious efforts. The battle also revealed deficiencies in the new Continental Navy's gunnery - the few British casualties were caused by musket fire.

Yo Solo

A Fighter

He fought the Apaches. He fought the Algerians. He fought the Hessians. He fought the Portuguese. He fought the British. He Fort Dix...Okay, the Fort Dix part was a Mel Brooks rip-off. But who was he? Bernardo de Gálvez was a Spanish governor, soldier, and diplomat who played a significant role during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies. I've received feedback from folks interested in the American Revolution when I post about traditional venues. They often express regret about not being closer to Yorktown, Lexington, and other key sites. However, the war's impact reached the entire world, expanding in scope as our allies joined the fight. We hear little about the American War for Independence in the West, and even less about actions in the Southwest and other areas beyond the original thirteen states. I thought it was time to shed some light on those parts.

Bernardo de Galvez

Old Spain

Bernardo de Gálvez was born on July 23, 1746, in Macharaviaya, a mountain village in the province of Málaga, Spain, to Matías and Josepha Madrid y Gallardo de Gálvez. During his lifetime, his family was one of the most prominent in Spain's royal service. Bernardo came from a military family, so following tradition, he pursued a military career. His first experience in battle was in 1762 when he served as a lieutenant fighting Portugal. After the war, the King of Spain promoted the talented young officer to the rank of captain. His appointment was to the infantry regiment La Coruña.

New Spain

In 1769, Gálvez was sent to the northern frontier of New Spain, where he was appointed commander of Spanish forces in Nueva Vizcaya and Sonora. Spain's main enemy there was the Apache, whose raids severely damaged the region's economy. Always aggressive in his tactics, Gálvez led several major expeditions against the fierce warriors. Gálvez was wounded twice during campaigns along the Pecos and Gila rivers in 1770 and 1771. However, the experience hardened him, and he developed a style of command that would serve him well in later years.

Old Spain and Beyond


Gálvez was ordered back to Spain in 1772 for a new assignment. This time, he served in France with the Regiment of Cantabria. Besides developing a more formal study of the military arts, Gálvez became fluent in French, a skill that would prove invaluable later in life on several fronts. He was called back home in 1775 to serve in the Regiment of Seville (soldiers renowned for their haircuts, I am sure). War loomed again, and Gálvez participated in the renowned Captain-General Alejandro O'Reilly's failed attack on Algiers. 

He was wounded again in the campaign but also received a promotion to lieutenant colonel. Gálvez’s career took a significant upward turn when he was transferred to Louisiana in 1776 and promoted to colonel of the Louisiana Regiment. 

Then, on January 1, 1777, the promising young officer was named governor of Louisiana. As governor, he reached out to the local French community. His knowledge of French made him popular with the locals, especially a young Creole woman, Marie Felice de Saint-Maxent Estrehan of New Orleans, whom he married.

Alejandro O'Reilly

Yankee Doodle Spaniard?

The activities along the Atlantic seaboard in the near to mid-1770s did not go unnoticed by Spanish authorities. Factions in Madrid struggled with the idea of supporting a rebellion against a lawful king. Still, some factions favored it as a means of retribution for previous British losses and insults to Spain. Gálvez was among the latter. Before Spain entered the American Revolutionary War, it secretly aided the American cause. Gálvez had secret correspondence with some of the most notable first patriots: Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Charles Henry Lee. Equally important, he personally met with their emissaries, Oliver Pollock and Capt. George Gibson. 

He responded to their request for support by securing the port of New Orleans and allowing only American, Spanish, and French ships to travel up and down the Mississippi River. He used the river to send arms, ammunition, and military supplies to the American forces under Colonel George Rogers Clark. 

When Spain formally declared war against Great Britain in 1779, Gálvez raised a force of men and launched a campaign against the British along the Mississippi River and the Gulf Coast. He requested cattle and horses from the Spanish governor of Texas, enabling him to feed the troops and move guns and supplies. Gálvez, in command of 1,400 men—including Americans, French, free blacks, and Indians—went on the offensive in the fall of 1779, defeating the British at Manchac, Baton Rouge, and Natchez. 

For its time and place, it was a veritable blitzkrieg against the unprepared British. Once the lower Mississippi was secured, he turned his attention to a larger prize, the British port and garrison at Mobile. He waged a month-long siege with land and sea forces now numbering over 2,000, capturing the British stronghold of Fort Charlotte on March 14, 1780.

Galvez's Campaigns

West Florida

General John Campbell

Anxious to remove the British from the Gulf Coast, Galvez turned his attention to West Florida (the panhandle). He led a combined land and sea attack on Pensacola, the British capital. However, he did so without the help of the Spanish navy, whose commander, Admiral Don Jose Calbo de Irazabel, thought the shallow waters were too dangerous. Tired of delays, Galvez decided to proceed on his own. He had gathered more than 7,000 men for the two-month siege of Fort George. 

Pensacola was a tough target. It had 900 British and German defenders under the command of General John Campbell and was well-fortified. Fierce fighting took place, and Galvez himself was wounded twice as they advanced their trenches. Then luck changed. A stray Spanish cannonball hit and ignited the British powder magazine. The explosion sent stone, wood, and limbs into the air and damaged part of the defenses. 

Short on powder and vulnerable to attack by the Spanish, Campbell surrendered on May 10, 1781. In recognition of his victories, Spanish King Carlos III promoted Galvez to lieutenant general, captain-general of Cuba, and governor of Louisiana. He also elevated Galvez to the peerage as a Conde (Count), and awarded him a coat of arms with the inscription "Yo Solo" (I Alone) to commemorate his attack on Pensacola without naval support.

A year later, Spanish forces under Galvez captured New Providence in the Bahamas, a significant blow to the British. Galvez quickly began planning a move on Jamaica, Britain's prized possession. However, peace negotiations prevented him from taking action. Gálvez contributed to shaping the terms of the peace treaty. The Continental Congress praised Galvez for his support during the conflict. The pressure from France and Spain—especially the losses in the Gulf and threats to the West Indies—helped push Britain toward peace. Bernardo de Galvez played a significant role in applying that pressure.

Spanish troops storm Pensacola

Viceroy of New Spain

After a short rest back in Spain, Gálvez was sent once more to America in October 1784, this time to serve as captain-general and governor of Cuba. In 1785, he was appointed Viceroy of New Spain (which included central and northern America as well as the islands) to succeed his father, who had held the post but died in November 1784. 

The adaptable and ambitious Gálvez and his family then moved to Mexico City. He proved to be as effective a governor during peaceful times as he was a general in war. The new Viceroy quickly earned the affection of the people by opening up not only government resources but also his personal fortune to aid those suffering from famine. Among Gálvez’s achievements as Viceroy were the commencement of the reconstruction of the Castle of Chapultepec and the completion of the Cathedral of Mexico, the largest cathedral in the Western Hemisphere. As often happens in history, when the smoke of battle clears, true warriors become builders.

A Sudden End, or Not...

Unfortunately for the people of New Spain, Bernardo de Gálvez died suddenly of a fever on November 30, 1786. They buried him beside his father in the wall of the Church of San Fernando. Eight days after his funeral, his widow gave birth to another child. But his legacy lives on beyond his descendants. Many streets and towns are named after this great Spanish hero of the American Revolution. 

While he was Viceroy of New Spain, Gálvez ordered José de Eviaqv's survey of the Gulf Coast. The mapmaker named the largest bay on the Texas coast Bahía de Galvezton, a name later changed to Galveston. One can only wonder what might have happened if Galvez hadn’t died so young. Clearly, one of the most remarkable and talented soldiers and statesmen Spain ever produced, Galvez might have achieved much more in developing Spanish America. 

Who knows, if he had lived, the face of the Americas might have looked very different. How different, I will leave to speculation.