Many leaders in the Continental Army had prior experience in the British Army, and some of them became quite controversial. Foremost among these was Charles Lee (General Washington’s second-in-command), who allowed himself to be captured by the British and was relieved after the Battle of Monmouth. (see blog post A General Disaster). Another was General Horatio Gates, who won at Saratoga but fell into disgrace at the Battle of Camden. Our profiles of Richard Montgomery (see blog post, First to Fall) and Hugh Mercer (see blog post, Surgeon General from Scotland) show that these men had no shortage of courage under fire – giving the last full measure.
But this edition highlights a man whose legacy of service to his new nation is complex and, in some ways, tragic. Arthur St. Clair was a man of intelligence and industry whose inconsistent military talents hide a career of dedication, patriotism, and significant frustration.
From Medicine to Military
Born in Truro, Scotland, in 1736 to a fairly well-off family, St. Clair attended the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1757, he changed his career by purchasing a commission as an ensign in the 60th Foot (Royal American Regiment) and traveled to America that same year to fight in the French and Indian War.
French and Indian War
Ensign St. Clair served under the renowned General Jeffrey Amherst, assisting in the capture of the massive French fortress at Louisburg in July 1758. The following spring, he was promoted to lieutenant and served under General James Wolfe at Quebec and during the fighting on the Plains of Abraham, the decisive battle of the war. Lieutenant St. Clair was mentioned in the dispatches for his heroism when he seized the regimental colors from a fallen soldier and carried them to victory. No amateur when it comes to courage.
Husband, Settler & Public Servant
His regiment was later based in Boston, where Cupid’s arrow struck deeply. His lovesick war hero married Phoebe Bayard (from the prominent Bowdoin family) in May 1760. Now settled into marriage with a well-known family, the life of a British officer became less promising. So he resigned his commission in 1762 and moved to Pennsylvania to seek his fortune as a surveyor. Two years later, he made his home permanently in Ligonier Valley on the colony’s western frontier, where land was inexpensive and easy to acquire. He eventually became the largest landowner and one of the most influential men in the colony’s western region.
Like many prominent men of his era, he began to build an impressive record of public service, which included roles such as surveyor of Cumberland County, justice of the court of quarter sessions and of common pleas, member of the proprietary council, recorder, clerk of the orphans’ court, and chief clerk of Bedford County courts. At that time, Bedford County covered what would later become Fayette, Westmoreland, Washington, Greene, and parts of Beaver, Allegheny, Indiana, and Armstrong counties. For quite a while, he was essentially the law in a land that was almost the wild west, filled with hunters, Indian traders, backcountry settlers, transients, and all kinds of questionable characters. He was especially recognized for dealing fairly with the local Indians.
Political Winds
St. Clair was caught in the territorial disputes between Pennsylvania and Virginia, which claimed a large part of the western colony. When Virginian John Connolly seized the area near today’s Pittsburgh for Virginia and tried to undermine Pennsylvania’s settlers, St. Clair had him arrested. Virginia’s governor had Pennsylvanians detained and complained to Governor Penn about St. Clair. The governor supported his magistrate, but the border dispute between the two colonies was not resolved until Congress intervened years later.
Militia Leader
Like many prominent colonial leaders, Arthur St. Clair played a key role in the local militia. In January 1776, he was appointed colonel of a regiment, which he raised over the winter and then force-marched north to join the invasion of Canada, reaching Quebec on April 11. However, the campaign was already lost with Montgomery's defeat and death while storming Quebec, along with the American loss at Chambly. All he could do was assist General John Sullivan’s retreat.
Cool Under Pressure
But his knowledge of the area from the last war and his military experience helped save a large part of the routed army. St. Clair was himself injured and barely made it back after being cut off by advancing British forces.
He was promoted to Brigadier General in August in recognition of his service and talents, and he was ordered to join General George Washington’s army in New Jersey, where he took command of a couple of militia regiments. The campaign also turned into a rout, and Washington’s forces disbanded as they retreated from Brunswick to make a narrow escape across the Delaware River.
Trusted Counsel
St. Clair went to work recruiting men for the beleaguered Continental Army and was rewarded with a brigade command, which he led capably during the critical American victories at Trenton, Assenpink Creek, and Princeton in the rapid counterattack of December 1776 – January 1777. Some accounts say that St. Clair devised the brilliant night maneuver from the Assenpink to cut off the British and threaten Princeton. Most other commanders recommended retreat, but Washington followed St. Clair’s advice, leading to the American victory at Princeton and possibly saving the rebellion from collapse. This explains Washington’s continued support for St. Clair during later controversies.
Return to the North
By the spring of 1777, tensions were again escalating in the northern colonies. A large force led by General John Burgoyne (see blog post, Gentleman Johnny) was gathering north of Lake Champlain. The Continental Congress President John Hancock ordered the newly appointed Major General Arthur St. Clair to take charge of the strategically vital but thinly manned fortress – Fort Ticonderoga. However, when St. Clair arrived in early June, he found the fort in poor condition. Located on the southern shore of Lake Champlain, the fort was the first target in a British invasion plan aimed at capturing Albany and dividing the colonies. Everyone hoped the fort would act as a barrier to stop Burgoyne’s advancing troops.
Fort of Futility
But as the Americans should have learned from the debacle at Fort Washington the previous year, a powerful fort that is undermanned becomes a liability, not an asset. Ticonderoga was undermanned, with men who were ill-fed and ill-equipped. Powder and provisions of all kinds were scarce. There were barely 2,500 men in a fort that needed 10,000 for a proper garrison. Burgoyne had over 8,000 British and German troops along with plenty of artillery and supplies.
Outflanked and Outgunned
The British soon moved into the area and quickly took control of Mount Defiance, where they installed a battery that commanded Ticonderoga. A coordinated attack would soon break through the defenses and easily damage the defenders. During a war council, St. Clair decided to evacuate the post and save the army for another day. It was a wise but debated decision.
Flight by Night
The night retreat in the face of an overwhelming enemy was a huge risk. St. Clair managed it, but not without a major mistake when French-born General Fermoy’s unexplained fire at his quarters warned the British. With redcoats and Germans close behind, the beleaguered Americans ran through the woods; a water route was avoided except for the wounded. St. Clair aimed not only to save his army but also to draw the British away from their path of advance, slow them down, and extend their supply lines.
Retreat, Divide and Conquer?
He split his forces, and the rear guard delayed the British pursuers, who were chasing them like hounds after a rabbit. St. Clair hoped to divide the British and herding them into the deep northern woods rather than letting them sail effortlessly down Lake George. They were barely ahead of the enemy. General Simon Fraser’s advance guard – the elite of the British army – collided with some of St. Clair’s forces at Hubbardton. It was a hard-fought victory for Fraser. Another British force – Germans, in fact – was defeated when they tried to ease a worsening supply situation by taking livestock at Bennington in today's Vermont.
Ignominy
Despite the wisdom of St. Clair’s successful retreat, which diverted and slowed the British, split their army, extended their supply lines, and prevented a valuable field force from being captured, he was condemned from all sides, especially by those who favored General Horatio Gates over Washington as commander in chief. Although the 2,500 men he managed to save formed the core of Gates's forces at Saratoga, which ultimately defeated the British, St. Clair was stripped of all command.
Yet General Washington continued to support him and recalled him to the main army, where he remained at the commander-in-chief’s side and served as an aide at the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777. At St. Clair's request, a court-martial was held in 1778. St. Clair was acquitted, “with the highest honor, of the charges against him.” But any hope of battlefield command was lost.
Selfless Service
He continued serving, however, and was with Washington when General Cornwallis’s army surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781. The war in the south was still ongoing, and St. Clair was assigned to lead a column of troops into the Carolinas to support General Nathanael Greene, who was working to clear out British garrisons from Ninety-Six to Charleston and Savannah. St. Clair's Pennsylvania reputation proved valuable when a serious mutiny broke out among the Pennsylvania Line regiments in 1783. He was called upon to appeal to his fellow Pennsylvanians, and he helped to calm the mutineers, who had planned an armed march on Congress.
Post-War Politics
St. Clair returned to Pennsylvania and began a distinguished career in political service to the new nation. He joined the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783. Later, St. Clair was elected as a delegate to the Confederation Congress. During his term from November 1785 through November 1787, he helped establish the new national government. It was a time of firsts and challenges. In February 1787, the members met and elected St. Clair as President of the Confederation Congress (essentially the leader of the federal government). He faced many responsibilities during his one-year term.
Shays's Rebellion broke out in 1787 over tax conflicts. Discontented farmers, mainly war veterans, protested against their state government. Despite the turmoil caused by the political crisis surrounding Shays's rebellion, Congress successfully passed a significant law during that time – the Northwest Ordinance. This established the blueprint for western expansion, governance, and admitting new territories into the United States. Most notably, during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was working on drafting a new United States Constitution, which would replace the old Confederation Congress with a stronger federal government consisting of three branches.
Frontier Governor
With the creation of the new Northwest Territory, Congress appointed Arthur St. Clair as its first governor. The Northwest Territory included what are now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Establishing his seat of government in the settlement he named “Cincinnati,” he began his work. His accomplishments were significant in helping settle and develop the land, as well as preparing it for eventual incorporation into the United States. As a former magistrate, he established the territory's first set of laws, known as Maxwell’s Code. He also invested personal funds to help clear land for settlement.
Northwest Indian War
St. Clair’s western accomplishments were controversial. He began building forts to protect settlers and defend against tribes. He negotiated the Treaty of Fort Harmar – forcing the Indians off their tribal land. Instead of settling Indian claims, the treaty led to outright conflict.
The tribes grabbed their tomahawks and went on the warpath, causing panic among western settlers. Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket led the coalition, aided by former British Loyalists Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. The tribes defeated a 1,500-strong militia led by General Josiah Harmar in October 1790.
The following spring, St. Clair was promoted to major general of the U.S. Army and personally led the response. Once again in uniform, he took to the field in October 1791 with two Regular Army regiments and militia – a column of 1,400 men marching deep into the Ohio wilderness to the headwaters of the Wabash River. Meanwhile, thousands of Miami, Delaware, and Shawnee warriors had gathered in the dense forests, awaiting a chance to strike at the hated enemy.
Massacre
The trap was sprung on November 4th — the warriors unleashing fierce sheets of lead into the Americans, who fell in large numbers. With less than half of his force remaining, St. Clair led a desperate bayonet charge to hold off the warriors closing in for the final blow. He managed to rescue the survivors but at the cost of over 600 killed and 300 wounded. The Battle of the Wabash stands as the worst disaster in what would become a long series of conflicts between the advancing Americans and the Indian tribes.
More Ignominy
St. Clair was widely condemned by everyone, including his long-time ally, President Washington, who initiated an investigation into the causes of the disaster— the first investigation by the executive branch under the new United States Constitution. The inquiry cleared St. Clair of any wrongdoing, but he was forced to resign from the army.
Politics & Policy
St. Clair managed to remain governor of the Ohio Territory, a testament to a combination of political factors (he was a strong Federalist in a largely Democratic-Republican west) and his recognized administrative skills. The republic had descended into intense partisan politics, and the frontier was no exception. St. Clair aimed to create two Federalist-leaning states from the Ohio Territory, hoping to increase Federalist influence in Congress. He made significant personal investments in the region, but the federal government, always short on cash, failed to reimburse him.
The Democratic-Republicans in Ohio opposed him and accused him of partisanship, duplicity, and arrogance. He did not help his case—resisting the direction from the new capital in Washington and its now Democratic-Republican administration. An 1802 statement rejecting Congress’s control over the territory led to President Thomas Jefferson removing St. Clair from the office he had held for more than a decade.
Home to Ligonier
Losing his western investments and running out of funds, St. Clair moved to western Pennsylvania. He and his wife lived with their daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family in a cabin located between Ligonier and Greensburg. Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818. He was 81 years old. His wife Phoebe died shortly afterward and is buried beside him under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park, downtown Greensburg.
Frustrated Founder
Despite being frustrated by two controversial military defeats, St. Clair was a good officer, a capable general, and most importantly, an adept military thinker. Why else would Washington keep him at his side after Fort Ticonderoga? He was a skilled administrator, and his efforts helped not just win a nation but build one, both at the seat of government and on its frontier. This makes the little-known medical student from Scotland one of our nation's founders in every sense of the word.
