Frustrated Founder

Many leaders in the Continental Army had prior experience in the British Army, and some of them became quite controversial. Foremost among these was Charles Lee (General Washington’s second-in-command), who allowed himself to be captured by the British and was relieved after the Battle of Monmouth. (see blog post A General Disaster). Another was General Horatio Gates, who won at Saratoga but fell into disgrace at the Battle of Camden. Our profiles of Richard Montgomery (see blog post, First to Fall) and Hugh Mercer (see blog post, Surgeon General from Scotland) show that these men had no shortage of courage under fire – giving the last full measure. 

General Charles Lee - one of many former

 British officers to serve in the Continental Army

But this edition highlights a man whose legacy of service to his new nation is complex and, in some ways, tragic. Arthur St. Clair was a man of intelligence and industry whose inconsistent military talents hide a career of dedication, patriotism, and significant frustration.

From Medicine to Military

Born in Truro, Scotland, in 1736 to a fairly well-off family, St. Clair attended the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1757, he changed his career by purchasing a commission as an ensign in the 60th Foot (Royal American Regiment) and traveled to America that same year to fight in the French and Indian War.

Private - 60th Regiment of Foot

French and Indian War

Ensign St. Clair served under the renowned General Jeffrey Amherst, assisting in the capture of the massive French fortress at Louisburg in July 1758. The following spring, he was promoted to lieutenant and served under General James Wolfe at Quebec and during the fighting on the Plains of Abraham, the decisive battle of the war. Lieutenant St. Clair was mentioned in the dispatches for his heroism when he seized the regimental colors from a fallen soldier and carried them to victory. No amateur when it comes to courage.

Fall of Louisburg

Husband, Settler & Public Servant

His regiment was later based in Boston, where Cupid’s arrow struck deeply. His lovesick war hero married Phoebe Bayard (from the prominent Bowdoin family) in May 1760. Now settled into marriage with a well-known family, the life of a British officer became less promising. So he resigned his commission in 1762 and moved to Pennsylvania to seek his fortune as a surveyor. Two years later, he made his home permanently in Ligonier Valley on the colony’s western frontier, where land was inexpensive and easy to acquire. He eventually became the largest landowner and one of the most influential men in the colony’s western region. 

18th Century Pennsylvania

Like many prominent men of his era, he began to build an impressive record of public service, which included roles such as surveyor of Cumberland County, justice of the court of quarter sessions and of common pleas, member of the proprietary council, recorder, clerk of the orphans’ court, and chief clerk of Bedford County courts. At that time, Bedford County covered what would later become Fayette, Westmoreland, Washington, Greene, and parts of Beaver, Allegheny, Indiana, and Armstrong counties. For quite a while, he was essentially the law in a land that was almost the wild west, filled with hunters, Indian traders, backcountry settlers, transients, and all kinds of questionable characters. He was especially recognized for dealing fairly with the local Indians.

Political Winds

St. Clair was caught in the territorial disputes between Pennsylvania and Virginia, which claimed a large part of the western colony. When Virginian John Connolly seized the area near today’s Pittsburgh for Virginia and tried to undermine Pennsylvania’s settlers, St. Clair had him arrested. Virginia’s governor had Pennsylvanians detained and complained to Governor Penn about St. Clair. The governor supported his magistrate, but the border dispute between the two colonies was not resolved until Congress intervened years later.

Militia Leader

Like many prominent colonial leaders, Arthur St. Clair played a key role in the local militia. In January 1776, he was appointed colonel of a regiment, which he raised over the winter and then force-marched north to join the invasion of Canada, reaching Quebec on April 11. However, the campaign was already lost with Montgomery's defeat and death while storming Quebec, along with the American loss at Chambly. All he could do was assist General John Sullivan’s retreat.

The campaign in Canada was lost by the time

St. Clair arrived at Quebec

Cool Under Pressure

But his knowledge of the area from the last war and his military experience helped save a large part of the routed army. St. Clair was himself injured and barely made it back after being cut off by advancing British forces.

Major General Arthur St. Clair

 He was promoted to Brigadier General in August in recognition of his service and talents, and he was ordered to join General George Washington’s army in New Jersey, where he took command of a couple of militia regiments. The campaign also turned into a rout, and Washington’s forces disbanded as they retreated from Brunswick to make a narrow escape across the Delaware River.

Trusted Counsel

St. Clair went to work recruiting men for the beleaguered Continental Army and was rewarded with a brigade command, which he led capably during the critical American victories at Trenton, Assenpink Creek, and Princeton in the rapid counterattack of December 1776 – January 1777. Some accounts say that St. Clair devised the brilliant night maneuver from the Assenpink to cut off the British and threaten Princeton. Most other commanders recommended retreat, but Washington followed St. Clair’s advice, leading to the American victory at Princeton and possibly saving the rebellion from collapse. This explains Washington’s continued support for St. Clair during later controversies.

Assenpink Creek

Return to the North

By the spring of 1777, tensions were again escalating in the northern colonies. A large force led by General John Burgoyne (see blog post, Gentleman Johnny) was gathering north of Lake Champlain. The Continental Congress President John Hancock ordered the newly appointed Major General Arthur St. Clair to take charge of the strategically vital but thinly manned fortress – Fort Ticonderoga. However, when St. Clair arrived in early June, he found the fort in poor condition. Located on the southern shore of Lake Champlain, the fort was the first target in a British invasion plan aimed at capturing Albany and dividing the colonies. Everyone hoped the fort would act as a barrier to stop Burgoyne’s advancing troops. 

General John Burgoyne

Fort of Futility

But as the Americans should have learned from the debacle at Fort Washington the previous year, a powerful fort that is undermanned becomes a liability, not an asset. Ticonderoga was undermanned, with men who were ill-fed and ill-equipped. Powder and provisions of all kinds were scarce. There were barely 2,500 men in a fort that needed 10,000 for a proper garrison. Burgoyne had over 8,000 British and German troops along with plenty of artillery and supplies.

Fort Ticonderoga

Outflanked and Outgunned

The British soon moved into the area and quickly took control of Mount Defiance, where they installed a battery that commanded Ticonderoga. A coordinated attack would soon break through the defenses and easily damage the defenders. During a war council, St. Clair decided to evacuate the post and save the army for another day. It was a wise but debated decision.

British guns on Mount Defiance would dominate the area

around Ticonderoga

Flight by Night

The night retreat in the face of an overwhelming enemy was a huge risk. St. Clair managed it, but not without a major mistake when French-born General Fermoy’s unexplained fire at his quarters warned the British. With redcoats and Germans close behind, the beleaguered Americans ran through the woods; a water route was avoided except for the wounded. St. Clair aimed not only to save his army but also to draw the British away from their path of advance, slow them down, and extend their supply lines. 

Retreat, Divide and Conquer?

He split his forces, and the rear guard delayed the British pursuers, who were chasing them like hounds after a rabbit. St. Clair hoped to divide the British and herding them into the deep northern woods rather than letting them sail effortlessly down Lake George. They were barely ahead of the enemy. General Simon Fraser’s advance guard – the elite of the British army – collided with some of St. Clair’s forces at Hubbardton. It was a hard-fought victory for Fraser. Another British force – Germans, in fact – was defeated when they tried to ease a worsening supply situation by taking livestock at Bennington in today's Vermont.

Hubbardton - a defeat, but also a diversion

Ignominy

Despite the wisdom of St. Clair’s successful retreat, which diverted and slowed the British, split their army, extended their supply lines, and prevented a valuable field force from being captured, he was condemned from all sides, especially by those who favored General Horatio Gates over Washington as commander in chief. Although the 2,500 men he managed to save formed the core of Gates's forces at Saratoga, which ultimately defeated the British, St. Clair was stripped of all command. 

General Horatio Gates

Yet General Washington continued to support him and recalled him to the main army, where he remained at the commander-in-chief’s side and served as an aide at the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777. At St. Clair's request, a court-martial was held in 1778. St. Clair was acquitted, “with the highest honor, of the charges against him.” But any hope of battlefield command was lost.

Selfless Service 

He continued serving, however, and was with Washington when General Cornwallis’s army surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781. The war in the south was still ongoing, and St. Clair was assigned to lead a column of troops into the Carolinas to support General Nathanael Greene, who was working to clear out British garrisons from Ninety-Six to Charleston and Savannah. St. Clair's Pennsylvania reputation proved valuable when a serious mutiny broke out among the Pennsylvania Line regiments in 1783. He was called upon to appeal to his fellow Pennsylvanians, and he helped to calm the mutineers, who had planned an armed march on Congress.

Yorktown Surrender

Post-War Politics

St. Clair returned to Pennsylvania and began a distinguished career in political service to the new nation. He joined the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783. Later, St. Clair was elected as a delegate to the Confederation Congress. During his term from November 1785 through November 1787, he helped establish the new national government. It was a time of firsts and challenges. In February 1787, the members met and elected St. Clair as President of the Confederation Congress (essentially the leader of the federal government). He faced many responsibilities during his one-year term.

Confederation Congress

 Shays's Rebellion broke out in 1787 over tax conflicts. Discontented farmers, mainly war veterans, protested against their state government. Despite the turmoil caused by the political crisis surrounding Shays's rebellion, Congress successfully passed a significant law during that time – the Northwest Ordinance. This established the blueprint for western expansion, governance, and admitting new territories into the United States. Most notably, during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was working on drafting a new United States Constitution, which would replace the old Confederation Congress with a stronger federal government consisting of three branches.

Shays's Rebellion

Frontier Governor

With the creation of the new Northwest Territory, Congress appointed Arthur St. Clair as its first governor. The Northwest Territory included what are now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Establishing his seat of government in the settlement he named “Cincinnati,” he began his work. His accomplishments were significant in helping settle and develop the land, as well as preparing it for eventual incorporation into the United States. As a former magistrate, he established the territory's first set of laws, known as Maxwell’s Code. He also invested personal funds to help clear land for settlement. 

Northwest Indian War

St. Clair’s western accomplishments were controversial. He began building forts to protect settlers and defend against tribes. He negotiated the Treaty of Fort Harmar – forcing the Indians off their tribal land. Instead of settling Indian claims, the treaty led to outright conflict. 

Fort Harmar

The tribes grabbed their tomahawks and went on the warpath, causing panic among western settlers. Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket led the coalition, aided by former British Loyalists Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. The tribes defeated a 1,500-strong militia led by General Josiah Harmar in October 1790.

Chief Blue Jacket

The following spring, St. Clair was promoted to major general of the U.S. Army and personally led the response. Once again in uniform, he took to the field in October 1791 with two Regular Army regiments and militia – a column of 1,400 men marching deep into the Ohio wilderness to the headwaters of the Wabash River. Meanwhile, thousands of Miami, Delaware, and Shawnee warriors had gathered in the dense forests, awaiting a chance to strike at the hated enemy. 

 St. Clair was appointed major general a second time

Massacre

The trap was sprung on November 4th — the warriors unleashing fierce sheets of lead into the Americans, who fell in large numbers. With less than half of his force remaining, St. Clair led a desperate bayonet charge to hold off the warriors closing in for the final blow. He managed to rescue the survivors but at the cost of over 600 killed and 300 wounded. The Battle of the Wabash stands as the worst disaster in what would become a long series of conflicts between the advancing Americans and the Indian tribes.

St Clair's defeat at the Wabash

More Ignominy

St. Clair was widely condemned by everyone, including his long-time ally, President Washington, who initiated an investigation into the causes of the disaster— the first investigation by the executive branch under the new United States Constitution. The inquiry cleared St. Clair of any wrongdoing, but he was forced to resign from the army. 

President Washington launched an inquiry

Politics & Policy

St. Clair managed to remain governor of the Ohio Territory, a testament to a combination of political factors (he was a strong Federalist in a largely Democratic-Republican west) and his recognized administrative skills. The republic had descended into intense partisan politics, and the frontier was no exception. St. Clair aimed to create two Federalist-leaning states from the Ohio Territory, hoping to increase Federalist influence in Congress. He made significant personal investments in the region, but the federal government, always short on cash, failed to reimburse him.

Northwest Territory - St. Clair's Legacy

The Democratic-Republicans in Ohio opposed him and accused him of partisanship, duplicity, and arrogance. He did not help his case—resisting the direction from the new capital in Washington and its now Democratic-Republican administration. An 1802 statement rejecting Congress’s control over the territory led to President Thomas Jefferson removing St. Clair from the office he had held for more than a decade. 

President Thomas Jefferson removed St. Clair

Home to Ligonier

Losing his western investments and running out of funds, St. Clair moved to western Pennsylvania. He and his wife lived with their daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family in a cabin located between Ligonier and Greensburg. Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818. He was 81 years old. His wife Phoebe died shortly afterward and is buried beside him under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park, downtown Greensburg. 

St. Clair's final home 

Frustrated Founder

Despite being frustrated by two controversial military defeats, St. Clair was a good officer, a capable general, and most importantly, an adept military thinker. Why else would Washington keep him at his side after Fort Ticonderoga? He was a skilled administrator, and his efforts helped not just win a nation but build one, both at the seat of government and on its frontier. This makes the little-known medical student from Scotland one of our nation's founders in every sense of the word. 

St. Clair's Grave

The Mad Man

Who was that Mad Man?

As a boy learning about the American Revolution, I found it quite amusing that a general would be called "Mad" Anthony Wayne. I wondered who that madman was and what he was so mad about. Any study of the American War for Independence should include this colorful Pennsylvanian, who captured the imagination of his contemporaries and endures through the ages.

Scion of a Scots-Irish Military Family

Anthony Wayne was born on January 1, 1745, to Isaac Wayne and Elizabeth Iddings Wayne in Easttown Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania. Isaac Wayne was born in Ireland, the son of Captain Anthony Wayne, a military officer who immigrated to America with his Dutch wife, Hannah. Their son Isaac became a tanner, establishing one of Pennsylvania's top businesses, and eventually took over the family estate, Waynesboro, from the aging captain. 

Young Anthony Wayne was well-educated, attending the Philadelphia Academy and the College of Philadelphia. Like George Washington, Wayne also worked as a surveyor, especially in Nova Scotia. He returned to Pennsylvania in 1766, where he continued surveying and worked at Isaac's tannery. He also married Mary Penrose, who bore him two children, Margretta and Isaac. 

As tensions with Great Britain increased, young Anthony became involved in the American cause. Like many emerging leaders of means, he turned to public service. Wayne served in the Pennsylvania legislature in 1774, and the next year, he raised a militia regiment in Chester County. In January 1776, he received a commission as colonel of the 4th Pennsylvania Continental Line. Things were about to get interesting for Anthony and the war.

Wayne's Home in Waynesboro

A Mad Campaigner in a Mad Campaign

As colonel of the 4th Pennsylvania, Wayne headed north to join General John Sullivan's division in the reckless and doomed invasion of Canada. In his first action, Wayne fought bravely but unsuccessfully against larger forces at the Battle of Trois-Rivieres in June 1776. 

The campaign soon fell apart, but Wayne proved himself through his leadership in guiding the army's retreat into New York. He then took command of Fort Ticonderoga, a crucial defense point on New York's northern frontier. Congress, pleased with his efforts, promoted him to Brigadier General in February 1777. Not long after, he was called south to join General George Washington and the main Continental Army, where he was given command of a brigade of Pennsylvanians.

Anthony Wayne

A Colorful Character

Wayne was a vibrant and irreverent leader who seemed to set the stage for later military figures like George Custer and George Patton. He used profanity effectively, often amusing his troops. Like Patton, he understood that soldiers should look sharp and that military pride comes from a good appearance. Similar to Custer and Patton, he was always well-dressed and kept a neat appearance. His bravado added to his legend, making him a favorite subject not just among troops but also among fellow officers. And like Custer and Patton, Wayne proved himself with inspiring performances in battle.

Holding the line at Brandywine

Although Washington was defeated, he managed to extricate his army and keep it as a threat to the slowly advancing British forces. When the Americans abandoned Philadelphia, Washington sent Wayne to shadow the British army and threaten their lines of communication. 

Unfortunately, the British received intelligence that revealed Wayne's position. Wayne's encampment near the Paoli Tavern was overrun in a stealthy night attack by Major General Charles Grey on the evening of September 20th. Grey earned the nickname "No Flint" because he ordered his men to remove their flints to avoid accidental discharges that could spoil his surprise: cold steel for the rebels. Later, claims emerged that the British took no prisoners and granted no quarter, leading to the engagement being known as the "Paoli Massacre." 

The massacre tarnished Wayne's reputation somewhat. Undaunted, he led his men across the fog-shrouded fields near Germantown, Pennsylvania, on October 4, 1777. With typical audacity, Wayne's command advanced ahead of other Continental brigades and pressed on the retreating British with the bayonet. However, Wayne and his old commander, General John Sullivan (also known to be headstrong and impetuous), advanced too quickly. Both were cut off about two miles ahead of the other Continental regiments. 

When the British regained their composure, their defenses stiffened. When Washington finally ordered a retreat, he once more called on Wayne to provide the rear guard. Not long after, the Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge.

Despite  the Paoli Massacre, 
Wayne was held in high regard

The harsh winter at Valley Forge had a silver lining. A new American army was born, trained, and drilled to fight in European style by German General Von Steuben. This new army would get its chance to prove itself the following summer, and Wayne would be in the mix once again. The British relieved Lord Howe of his command and replaced him with Sir Henry Clinton, who decided to abandon Philadelphia and concentrate forces once more around New York City. 

In June 1778, Clinton ordered half of his forces to sail north. However, a sizable column marched across New Jersey toward their new base of operations. Wayne was called upon to lead the advance guard at Monmouth Court House, New Jersey. Once again thrust into a controversial engagement, Wayne's forces were abandoned by Major General Charles Lee. His men were soon pinned down by superior British forces, a rearguard that struck back at the pursuing Americans. Demonstrating determination and resourcefulness under fire, Wayne held his ground until reinforcements sent by Washington arrived. Wayne reorganized his troops and continued fighting.

American attack at Monmouth

Light Anthony

By the spring of 1779, Washington's Army focused on the main British garrison in New York. The British tried to lure Washington into a decisive battle. Awaiting anticipated French support, Washington played a game of cat and mouse. 

In May 1779, Sir Henry Clinton, the British Commander in Chief, launched the first phase of a complex plan to destroy Washington's army. Using their superior naval forces, the British moved up the North (Hudson) River and took the strategic position at Stony Point, about 10 miles south of West Point and 35 miles north of New York City. 

This move aimed to draw Washington out of the Hudson Highlands. Clinton then sent an expedition to Connecticut, leaving a reinforced regiment with fifteen guns to defend the earthworks around Stony Point. Washington observed the British defenses and decided to take them by force. 

To accomplish this, the Corps of Light Infantry was formed on June 12, 1779. There was no doubt who would command the unit or the mission: Anthony Wayne. The Corps of Light Infantry was an elite unit assembled for campaigns from 1777 to 1781. Its members came from the light infantry companies of each regiment in Washington's army. 

In 1779, the Corps consisted of a brigade of four regiments, each with two battalions of four companies. At midnight on July 16, the attack began in three columns, with Wayne personally leading one. In a tactic successfully used against him at Paoli, Wayne had his men advance with unloaded muskets, ready to storm the defenses with bayonets. Wayne's column came under musket fire, and he was wounded. Nevertheless, Wayne's men pressed on and quickly overran the British defenses. They captured over 500 prisoners and suffered only 100 casualties. 

This victory boosted the morale of the American Army and the cause, which had suffered setbacks. For his heroism and tactical success, Congress awarded Wayne a rare medal in recognition of the victory.

Stony Point was Wayne's most celebrated exploit

Why so Mad?

I always thought Wayne was nicknamed "Mad" because of his heroics in battle, especially for his actions at Stony Point. However, ironically, he didn't earn his nickname for his reckless fighting style; instead, it came from an incident in Morristown, New Jersey, during winter quarters in 1781. 

The story goes that New Jersey law officers detained an eccentric soldier known as “the Commodore” or “Jimmy the Drover” for a minor civil infraction. The soldier asked Wayne for help, but Wayne threatened to have the troublemaker whipped instead. “Jimmy the Drover” supposedly responded, “Anthony is mad! Farewell to you; clear the coast for the Commodore, ‘Mad Anthony’s’ friend.” Wayne’s Pennsylvanians really enjoyed the story and decided that “Mad Anthony” was a fitting nickname for their leader. You have to admit, it’s not a bad nickname.

 Winning the War

In the spring of 1781, Wayne led his Pennsylvanians into Virginia and served under Lafayette to help stop the British. On July 6, 1781, he fought alongside Lafayette at the Battle of Green Spring. His aggressive charge surprised the larger British forces, probably saving the Americans from defeat. Wayne then joined Washington to help defeat Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

However, the war did not end there. In 1782, Wayne was sent to Georgia to help drive out British forces. He broke the longstanding British alliance with the Indian tribes in Georgia. As British power declined, he managed to negotiate treaties with the two strongest tribes, the Creek and the Cherokee. As a final honor, Congress promoted him to major general on October 10, 1783. 

After the hostilities ended, Wayne went back to Pennsylvania. The well-known war hero served in the Pennsylvania Assembly and was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. But after the war, his life was focused on peace and quiet, as it was for many of his peers.

Commander of the US Army

Wayne, as Commander of the
Legion of the United States

In 1792, it was time for Anthony Wayne to answer the bugle call once again. 

President George Washington appointed Wayne as commander-in-chief of the modest U.S. Army, known as the Legion of the United States. The Legion had suffered several defeats at the hands of the intertribal Indian Confederation formed to resist white encroachments into the Ohio Territory— the Midwest. 

The Indian Confederacy decisively defeated U.S. forces in 1790 and 1791 under the leadership of Shawnee chieftain Blue Jacket and Miami chief Little Turtle. The Indians had been supported and supplied by the British, who refused to evacuate British fortifications in the region as stipulated in the Treaty of Paris.

Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers was the new
Army's first post in the RevWar

Upon his arrival, Mad Anthony energized the beleaguered Legion with his own passionate leadership. At the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Wayne decisively ended Indian resistance when his experienced force of 1,000 men routed the 2,000 warriors assembled for a final showdown near Fort Miami on the Maumee River. 

This victory allowed Wayne to negotiate the Treaty of Greenville in August 1795. Under its terms, the Indians ceded most of Ohio and large parts of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. This outcome was not guaranteed for many reasons (British schemes aimed to keep the 13 states along the Atlantic coast). Wayne's victory secured thousands of square miles of disputed land for the United States and led to signed peace treaties with the Indian tribes. Mad Anthony Wayne successfully completed the mission for which President George Washington had called him back to active duty.

Treaty of Fort Greenville secured peace in the
 Northwest Territory and American expansion

Untimely Death

Having finished his work in the northwest, Wayne started the long journey home. He sailed from what is now Detroit on a sloop. After five days, he reached the site of the old French outpost at Fort Presqu'Isle, now known as Erie, Pennsylvania. Though the weather was nice, his thoughts grew darker, and he wrote several letters about his final wishes. 

At Presque Isle, Wayne had a serious gout attack. Anyone who's experienced gout knows that’s enough reason to be upset. This was clearly a severe case with complications. Urgent calls for doctors were sent to Pittsburgh and the Army hospitals. Wayne's health kept getting worse as he developed intense stomach pains. The doctors from the east arrived, but on the same day, December 15, 1796, "Mad" Anthony Wayne died. He was buried in a simple coffin, with his initials and date of death carved into the wood using round-headed brass tacks, at the foot of the blockhouse flagstaff on garrison hill.

Rebuilt blockhouse on Presque Isle

A Strangely Eerie Homecoming

In 1808, Wayne's son Isaac returned to Presque Isle to take his father's remains back home. 

Unfortunately, he lacked enough space for all the remains in his small, sulky wagon. The doctor helping him boiled the late hero's corpse, then returned the flesh and clothing to the coffin and reburied it. He then packed the bones for transport to the east. "Mad" Anthony Wayne's bones were buried in the family plot at St. David's Episcopal Church cemetery in Radnor, Pennsylvania. The strange end to the great warrior's earthly remains gave rise to legends of hauntings. One could say that while Anthony Wayne may have become enraged for little reason in life, he certainly had a reason for anger in death.

Wayne's 2d Gravesite Radnor, Penna.