First to Fall: Richard Montgomery

Quebec: 31 December 1775

Swirling snow shattered the cold night’s darkness. Desperately cold and weary men stood in the courtyard, their nervous eyes scanning the dark walls for the enemy they knew was waiting. Their leader stepped forward. Eyeing a two-story blockhouse blocking their way, he had no time to lose, nor any hesitation. He drew his sword and led the troops toward it, shouting, "Come on, my good soldiers, your general calls upon you to come on."

Richard Montgomery

First Fallen 

The Continental Army lost several general officers in or directly because of combat during the American War for Independence. Generals High Mercer, Johann de Kalb, and Kazimierz Pulaski often come to mind. David Wooster not so much. And one, Major General Joseph Warren, surprisingly fell serving as a private soldier at Bunker Hill in 1775. Although Warren was a militia general and not leading Continental troops, he still deserves recognition. But who was the first American general to fall while leading a group of American troops?

Hugh Mercer: most celebrated

 fallen general

Son of Ireland

Not surprisingly, considering the timing, we are in the month of the Feast of Saint Patrick. He was a son of Ireland named Richard Montgomery. Born in Swords, County Dublin, Richard Montgomery was born into Ulster-Scots privilege on December 2, 1738. His family roots traced back to Donegal, but his branch of the Montgomery clan was now rooted in the Dublin-London connection. His father served as a member of parliament. His brothers also pursued the common British path of politics and military service. Young Richard followed that path as well, but with some interesting twists and turns along the way. Like many of his class, he entered Trinity College in Dublin but left before graduation to accept a commission in the 17th Regiment of Foot, purchased by his father in 1756. And why not? What better way to make a name for himself and advance than by following the colors?

Fighting France 

The French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) served as the training ground for Montgomery, just as it did for many others on both sides who later fought in the American Revolution. Ensign Montgomery was about to embark on a whirlwind of action and adventure. His regiment was shipped to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where it joined a large British army preparing for the siege of Louisbourg, a fortress on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island. This massive fort had played a key role in every struggle for North America. Now, two of Britain’s top generals, James Abercromby and Jeffrey Amherst, had the forces to do it. On June 8, 1758, the attack began. Montgomery landed on the beach under heavy fire and ordered his troops to advance with fixed bayonets. The French outposts were overrun, and the siege commenced. The siege was successful, and General Amherst was impressed by Montgomery's actions during it, promoting him to lieutenant. 

Siege of Louisbourg

Struggle for New York 

The Louisbourg campaign was followed by intense fighting in the wilds of central New York the next month, with the 17th and Montgomery deeply involved. The waterways—Lake Champlain, the Richelieu, the Hudson, and the Mohawk Rivers—served as a strategic route through the mountains between central New York and Canada. Fans of "The Last of the Mohicans" can appreciate the setting, which features rugged slopes, large, dark, and deep lakes, swollen rivers, and lush valleys. The key fortifications of Fort Carillon (Ticonderoga) and Crown Point became focal points of deadly conflict. Still, it was a beautiful place where men blasted and carved each other to pieces. Montgomery’s skills were sharpened here; he learned patrols, picketing, and close combat. 

Fort Ticonderoga

The British eventually forced the French to retreat to the northern tip of Lake Champlain, gaining a strategic advantage. The 17th regiment spent 1759 in the Mohawk Valley under General Monkton’s command, who appointed Montgomery as adjutant on May 15—marking his distinction and potential. In August 1760, the 17th regiment moved toward Montreal as part of a three-pronged effort to capture the city. Montgomery’s regiment seized Isle aux Noix and Fort Chambly, then joined British regiments outside Montreal, which the Marquis de Vaudreuil, Canada's French governor, soon surrendered. However, the war was far from over.

French withdrawing north on Lake Champlain

French West Indies

The fall of Montreal gave the British control of North America, allowing them to now focus on the West Indies, where valuable sugar islands awaited. The 17th regiment sailed south after securing Canada. There were French and Spanish islands to conquer. The British took a beachhead on the key French island of Martinique and then launched an attack that overwhelmed the French outer defenses. The French survivors retreated into the capital, Fort Royal. This time, before the British could even start an attack, the French surrendered. The remaining French islands in the French West Indies—Grenada, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent—quickly followed. On 6 May 1762, Lieutenant Colonel John Campbell promoted Montgomery to captain and assigned him command of a company in the 17th.

The British invasion of Martinique

Fighting Spain

Now Britain could turn against France's ally, Spain. Since Spanish Cuba controlled the approaches to the Indies and North America, it was a prime target. On June 6, British forces arrived off Havana's coast. Before them stood Moro Fort, the key to the Spanish defense of the city. It had to be taken. British battleships bombarded the fort, silencing all but two Spanish guns. On July 30, Captain Montgomery and the 17th Foot stormed and captured the fort. In late August 1762, Montgomery and the 17th Foot were sent to New York. The long and bloody war ended with the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. At the time, the British triumph was resounding: a world empire! Few could have imagined that the treaty would lead to even more conflict, political unrest, and a longer war.

Pontiac's War

Things did not quiet down in North America after France’s surrender. Angered that the French ceded their lands to the British and the land-hungry colonists, the tribes erupted into action in April 1763. The Ottawa chief, Pontiac, organized 18 tribes in a wave of attacks on British military and civilian settlements. Eight British forts fell, and two more were abandoned. General Amherst ordered the 17th to Albany in June 1763 to help fight the outbreak of hostilities. This would bring experience in Indian fighting and, more importantly, the start of a lifelong passion.

Pontiac's War threatened Britain's new western lands

Romantic Interlude

Sailing up the North River to Albany, Montgomery’s vessel ran aground near Clermont Manor, NY, home of the influential Livingston family. The family entertained the ship's officers while their vessel was being repaired. This was fortunate for the bachelor Montgomery, who met Janet, the 20-year-old daughter of wealthy and powerful Robert Livingston. It’s unclear if love blossomed at first sight, but Janet noticed Montgomery was not with the same group of officers when they returned to New York after the campaign. Clearly, the young Irishman made an impression.

Janet Livingston

Indian Fighter

The 17th spent 1764 on garrison duty at Fort Stanwix. While there, Montgomery requested leave from Colonel Campbell and General Thomas Gage to return to England for recovery from ill health caused by service in the Indies. Gage approved his leave, but only after the upcoming expedition.

Ottawa War Chief Pontiac

In July, Montgomery’s regiment joined John Bradstreet’s expedition to Fort Niagara, providing security for Royal Indian Agent Sir William Johnson’s conference with the Great Lakes tribes. By August, the regiment was marched through woods and fields to Fort Detroit, the target of Pontiac’s attacks. Montgomery’s company was assigned to work on moving earth, logs, and stone to strengthen the beleaguered fort’s defenses. His leave was still on hold.

Sir William Johnson

The following month, Montgomery received a break when General Bradstreet took him to Sandusky for a meeting with the Shawnee and the Delawares. After successful negotiations with the Iroquois, Bradstreet released Montgomery, who was then tasked with delivering dispatches to Gage before heading to England. Upon returning to London, Montgomery soon became involved in the city's political circles.

General John Bradstreet

English Interlude

His health having improved, he associated with Whig Members of Parliament, who generally supported the colonists in their demands for more political freedom. Several of their prominent figures, Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, and Charles James Fox, befriended the young officer. Political discussions with these and others led him to question government policies. When the 17th Foot returned to England in 1768, he was tasked with recruiting men to replace those lost to war and disease. Montgomery also experienced romantic disappointment when an arranged engagement ended because his fiancée proved unfaithful. 

Edmund Burke

After months and years of active service, the dull routine of the peacetime army often aggravates ambitious men. Montgomery was no exception. In 1771, he discovered that he had been passed over for a promotion, possibly due to his Whig politics. He sold his commission for about £1,500 in 1772 and set sail for America in July. Spurned by a woman and the army, Montgomery had sworn to never marry or take up arms again. His goal was to become a gentleman farmer in the New World.

Colonial Life

Montgomery settled in a part of America he knew well: New York. Perhaps recalling his time on the Hudson, Montgomery rekindled his relationship with the wealthy young Janet Livingston. He purchased a farm at King's Bridge, 13 miles north of New York City. As he adjusted to his surroundings, Montgomery's "renewed acquaintance" blossomed into something more. Janet later recalled that his "politeness led him to make me a visit." The courtship led to an engagement, and by the following July, the confirmed bachelor found himself in wedded bliss.

Montgomery settled along the North (Hudson) River

Honeymoon on Hudson

Montgomery leased his farm to a tenant and moved into a cottage gifted to them by Janet’s grandfather, Judge Beekman. The cottage was located on the Post Road in Rhinebeck. Montgomery purchased some of the nearby lands and began building the farmstead, laying the groundwork for a larger home called "Grasmere." Montgomery told Janet he was never happier, but believed it couldn't last. For her part, Janet had a dream in which Montgomery was killed in a duel by his brother. He was determined to enjoy their brief happiness and insisted it be left to God. So, the couple enjoyed their wedded bliss. But not for long.

The Montgomery Cottage

Times of Upheaval

As the colonies began to question Parliament’s authority, political unrest evolved into resistance. By 1775, Montgomery began to oppose the British government, which he saw as oppressive. Being connected to one of New York’s most patriotic families also helped. The former British Army captain now viewed himself as an American, not an Englishman. 

Parliament

Provincial Politician

In May, Montgomery represented Dutchess County in New York’s new Provincial Congress. Although Montgomery had not sought political involvement, he had quickly become a well-respected local leader. He was obliged to attend the session in New York City, some 80 miles south of Rhinebeck.

New York was rife with political strife

At the first session in May, Montgomery joined the other 97 delegates in approving a resolution legitimizing its authority. Yet he was still only a “moderate" patriot. Although he viewed the British Government as wrong in its policies, he still wanted honorable reconciliation. But the faction still loyal to George III was on the wane. Few of those delegates even showed up.  But Montgomery stayed.  He would fight for his rights as a Briton and an American. Due to his military experience, Montgomery was appointed to a committee tasked with planning defense works around New York and organizing and supplying the new provincial militia.

War for Independence

After George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed Continental Army on June 15, 1775, the Second Continental Congress asked the New York Provincial Government to select two men for service in the army. One would be a major general, and the other a brigadier general. The assembly favored the wealthy and well-connected Philip Schuyler as the major general, despite his lack of military experience. The more highly qualified Montgomery was made a brigadier general. Montgomery expressed reluctance to return to military life. Perhaps his premonition returned to haunt him, but he agreed to serve.

Phillip Schuyler

Montgomery's thoughts on serving are expressed in a letter, "The Congress having done me the honor of electing me brigadier-general in their service, is an event which must put an end, for a while, perhaps forever, to the quiet scheme of life I had prescribed for myself; for, though entirely unexpected and undesired by me, the will of an oppressed people, compelled to choose between liberty and slavery, must be obeyed."

America Turns North

In June 1775, newly proclaimed commander-in-chief General George Washington appointed Montgomery as deputy commander under Philip Schuyler, who received orders to invade Quebec and bring Canada into the war on the American side. A force was assembled at Fort Ticonderoga, and Schuyler left to take command of the army, leaving Montgomery in Albany to make final arrangements for the invasion. Janet followed him as far north as Saratoga, where he promised he would do his duty and preserve his honor.

Albany, NY circa American Revolution

Plans, Logistics, and Delay

Schuyler spent the summer preparing for the invasion. By this time, Washington decided to send Colonel Benedict Arnold to lead another force in invading Quebec from Maine and joining Schuyler's army outside Quebec City. Schuyler entrusted most of the tedious military administration to Montgomery. Instead, he focused on politics, which was his strong suit. Schuyler pushed for more men and supplies and negotiated to keep the Iroquois neutral during the campaign.

Colonel Benedict Arnold

A Time for Action

Meanwhile, Montgomery, upon receiving intelligence that the British were preparing to station armed vessels on Lake Champlain, quickly headed north to confront the threat. Without seeking permission from Schuyler, he sailed up the lake with 1,200 men. Montgomery sent a dispatch to Schuyler explaining the situation. He recognized that the season for war was ending, and time was not on the side of the Americans.

Next Edition: Richard Montgomery’s War

Shores of Tripoli

 Review: Shores of Tripoli 

This is a rare and unusual Yankee Doodle Spies sequel segment. Although it’s a bit of a stretch, I felt compelled to review this board game because it depicts events that have some surprising links to the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies. What motivates me to review this game? In a word, fun. Shores of Tripoli offers an engaging and intriguing look at this pivotal period in United States national security policy. Players learn as they play and interact while they learn. And they have a good time. But I think I already mentioned that.

                                                           Poster of the 1950s Action Flick

Fort Circle Games

Kevin Bertram, designer and owner of Fort Circle Games, shares that his inspiration for the game came from Brian Kilmeade’s book about the American effort to suppress the Barbary (North African) States and their corsairs (pirates) at the start of the 19th century. I admit—I haven't read the book, though I’ve read others on the topic and watched the John Payne film, Tripoli, as a young person. In his designer notes, Kevin mentions he created the game after realizing no one had addressed this subject. I started playing board wargames when I was in third grade. The first I remember was called Tactics II. I played wargames for many years and even tried miniatures. After reading Kevin’s words, I agreed—he’s right. So, the game is groundbreaking for shining a light on that little-known conflict.

                                                                            Box Cover

The Mechanics

I'm not talking about Paul Revere’s spy network, but about how the game is played. I'll let others give a play-by-play of the rules. You can also find many YouTube clips by Kevin and other players who enjoy the game explaining the rules. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=etnQr4eTy6s&fbclid=IwAR0gOquGCChbCxnXMEHmOIaQVudN7seQoFRStocsAS9QRL1K4SEUAFW11og

The game starts as a board game featuring a simple, attractive map of North Africa. Important ports like Gibraltar (British-controlled and neutral), Malta, Tripoli, Alexandria, and Derne are marked, as these are where most of the action takes place. Players move ship markers, including American, Swedish, and Tripolitan frigates; American cutters; and Tripolitan and allied corsairs. You also manage soldier markers such as US marines, Hamet’s (deposed older brother and rival to Tripolitan ruler Yusuf Karamanli) mercenaries, and Barbary pirates. 

                                                                Pieces, Dice & Board

Combat relies on die rolling, and this game involves a lot of it. Luck often outweighs skill in many situations. I think Napoleon once said he would prefer having a lucky general over a good one. However, the game is mainly driven by card play. Players draw cards from a deck each turn and can discard any card to make a move or play specific cards to bring in reinforcements or perform various actions. The real key is the Event Cards, which influence movement, combat, political actions, and more. Players constantly draw, discard, or play cards as the game unfolds across four seasons each year from 1801 to 1806. The cards bring surprises, both positive and negative. How a player uses the cards dealt to them can make up for poor dice rolls and mistakes. So, watch them closely. And may the odds always be in your favor.

                                            American Frigate takes on a Barbary Corsair

The Result

The game provides players with about an hour of fun and frustration. It's a two-player game featuring a cool solitaire option. The American side has many advantages, such as large ships (frigates), US Marines, and Swedish allies. Yeah — Sweden! But the American side also faces significant risks. Closing the deal, which involves assaulting and capturing Tripoli, can result in a Ragnarök-like end for the game. The American player starts slowly, building firepower with frigates and gunboats, while pesky pirates go on raids.

                                                            The cards make the game

The Barbary player has less firepower but more flexibility. He can run out the clock. If the American player is too cautious, the Barbary player may have time to launch enough raids to win by capturing treasure (gold-colored coins). Or he can win if the American fails to use the right mix of naval and land forces to take Tripoli. And though the American frigates are strong, they are also vulnerable: losing four of them wins the game for the Tripolitan side. This reflects how American and European public opinion reacts to unacceptable losses. A draw favors the Barbary States, but the Americans can use cards and clever maneuvers to force a treaty and secure victory.

                                                        USS Philadelphia under attack

Either way, both sides have fun and learn a lot about this important but little-known event in American history.

                                                            Jefferson's Letter to the Bey

The game features an intelligent historical supplement and designer notes that enhance the rules effectively. The design, artwork, and layout are of top quality. A highlight is the “mock-up” of the 21 May 1801 letter to the Pasha and Bey of Tripoli, Yusuf Karamanli, which explains the reason for the friendly visit of the American squadron to the Mediterranean. It creates an engaging scene with atmosphere as you read President Jefferson’s reassuring words. 

Yankee Doodle Spies Sequel?

The war against the Barbary States was the first effort by America to send military force overseas. One of the results of the American War for Independence and American sovereignty was losing the protection of the powerful British Navy. This was clear during the undeclared naval war with France, an event that led to the rebirth of an American naval force focused on a small fleet of "super-frigates," which served as fast and nimble ships-of-the-line.

Key figures – Rev War Connections

I'll now circle back to the American Revolution with some interesting links between the Tripoli affair and the era of the Yankee Doodle Spies.

                                    1st Lt Presley O'Bannon raises the American flag over Derna

Thomas Jefferson

The most prominent figure is President Thomas Jefferson, the central character in the event. The founding father and the first Secretary of State sought a peaceful way to handle the Barbary States’ demands for tribute—without actually paying it. This approach was influenced by the pride of a newly independent and still uncertain republic and limited funds. His letter dated 21 May 1801 was his last effort to negotiate. However, the Bey of Tripoli had already chosen war, declaring it on 14 May.

                                                            President Thomas Jefferson

William Eaton

William Eaton is one of those tough historical figures who played a major role in a key event. Son of a middle-class New England farmer, young Eaton served in the Continental Army from 1780 to 1783, ending as a sergeant at age 19. He received some schooling after the war and later became a captain in the new American Legion under the famous Revolutionary War hero, Major General “Mad” Anthony Wayne, during the war against western Indian nations. There, he faced some controversy and a court-martial for war profiteering and for releasing a prisoner from jail. He received a two-month “suspended commission.” 

In the quirky world of Federalist-era bureaucracy, he stayed in the army. He was appointed U.S. Consul to Tunis in 1797, making Eaton the main representative of the United States in the region. In 1804, he convinced the government to undertake a special operation to bring Yusuf’s brother, Hamet, into the conflict. The plan was approved, and Eaton led a small expeditionary force to Alexandria, where they joined up with Hamet and his ragtag mercenary army. With Marines and a few sailors as the core, they marched west to Derna and, after a fierce fight, captured the city. However, Hamet’s unreliability and peace overtures ended further efforts. Eaton returned to America, celebrated but bitter.

                                                                        William Eaton

Pressley O’Bannon

Arguably the fiercest warrior of the war (and the U.S. Navy had many of these) was a United States Marine officer, Lieutenant Presley O’Bannon. A native of Virginia and son of a Revolutionary War officer, O’Bannon joined the Marines in 1801 as a 2nd Lieutenant and was promoted to 1st Lieutenant the following year. He held various commands both aboard ship and on land, and during the Derna operation, commanded a squad of 8 marines and an ensign. 

O’Bannon’s bravery and daring were evident on April 27, 1804, at Derna. He led marines, some Greek mercenaries, and a few artillery gunners in a fierce charge through a hail of enemy musket fire. Ignoring the flying lead around him, he seized an enemy battery and raised the American flag on the city’s walls. He then turned the captured cannons on the enemy. After two hours of close combat, the fortress fell. This was the first time the stars and stripes flew over a fortress in the Old World during a time of war. 

O’Bannon was awarded a jeweled Mameluke scimitar for his bravery, and upon returning to Virginia, his home state, he was given a commemorative one as well. To this day, Marine officers wear a similar sword. After the war, he resigned his commission and moved west with his family, settling in Kentucky’s bluegrass region. An interesting Revolutionary connection: Legendary O’Bannon married the granddaughter of the ultimate Revolutionary War badass – the famed rifleman and General Daniel Morgan of Winchester, Virginia.

                                                        1st Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon

Tobias Lear

Another intriguing link to the Revolutionary War was Tobias Lear. The New Hampshire native did not serve in the war but attended Harvard from 1779 to 1783. Lear was an ambitious yet capable individual who moved from tutoring Martha Washington’s grandchildren to becoming George Washington’s secretary and trusted aide. He was visiting Mount Vernon when Washington died. 

Lear later earned the favor of President Thomas Jefferson, who, in 1801, appointed him as Consul-General to the North African coast. On June 4, 1805, Lear negotiated a "Treaty of Peace and Amity" with Yusuf. This was a difficult pill for many Americans to swallow. Lear arranged a ransom of $60,000 (about $1,024,400 today) for the release of sailors from the USS Philadelphia and several American merchant ships. Ironically, the Philadelphia was supposed to be the ship transporting him to the region, but a delay caused by his marriage plans (to a Washington/Custis girl) led him to sail on the Enterprise. 

                                                                            Tobias Lear

The Fighting Judge

 The Fighting Judge

If you drive up I-79 from Pittsburgh to Erie, Pennsylvania, the third-to-last exit is for a town named McKean, a small borough with about 300 residents. After many trips through the area, I decided to find out who this unassuming town was named after. A quick search led me into the world of an early patriot and founder who helped shape two states, a nation, and even a system of law. And he was not afraid of some combat along the way.

Son of a Tavernkeeper

Thomas McKean was born about twenty miles west of Wilmington, Delaware, in New London, Pennsylvania, on March 19, 1734. This connection is significant because McKean’s future was deeply linked to both Pennsylvania and the future state of Delaware, then known as the lower counties of the Keystone State. His parents were William McKean, a tavern keeper, and Letitia Finney. They had immigrated to Pennsylvania from Ballymoney, County Antrim, Ireland, when they were young, making McKean another first-generation patriot son of Ireland.

                                                    McKean's youth probably saw him

                                                    working in one of his father's taverns

    

Reading the Law

The younger McKean did not become a tavernkeeper. Instead, he received an excellent education, starting at the New London Academy and later in New Castle, Delaware, where he studied law under David Finney, a cousin. His “dual-jurisdiction” career began when he was admitted to the bar in 1755 in both The Lower Counties (Delaware) and Pennsylvania. A year later, he was appointed deputy attorney general for Sussex County. Political life quickly intertwined with law, and McKean served several terms in the General Assembly of the Lower Counties during the 1760s and 1770s, including a stint as Speaker. His intellectual credentials were confirmed when, in 1768, the talented jurist was elected to the American Philosophical Society. Not to remain idle, he also served as a judge of the Court of Common Pleas, and in 1771, he was appointed Customs Collector in New Castle. His impressive resume and the path to rebellion had not yet reached their peak. But tensions were rising.

                                                                Colonial Courthouse

The Lower Counties Splinter

Politically, the Lower Counties were divided into an Anglican pro-British faction, the Court Party, and a Scots-Irish patriot faction, the Country Party. Most counties supported the Court Party. New Castle was Scots-Irish and patriotic, and McKean soon became its leader. He first gained political recognition outside of Delaware when he represented the Lower Counties at the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, helped draft the petition to Parliament, and publicly called out the opposition, Timothy Ruggles, almost leading to a duel.

                                                          The Stamp Act Congress met at 

                                                                   Federal Hall in NYC

Revolutionary Politico

When the First Continental Congress was convened in 1774, McKean, along with Caesar Rodney and George Read, represented Delaware. He returned in the same capacity for the Second Continental Congress in 1775 and 1776. It was during the latter that he passionately advocated for independence. When he and Read split the Delaware vote, Caesar Rodney was not present. McKean called for Rodney’s return, and the famous midnight ride of Caesar Rodney led to Delaware voting 2-1 in favor of independence. The Declaration was then approved.

     Caesar Rodney's all-night ride 

would usher independence

Following the Drum

The ink was not dry on the Declaration when McKean suddenly left Philadelphia to take command as colonel of the Fourth Battalion of the Pennsylvania Associators, a militia unit. The battalion participated in the intense campaign to defend New York City in the summer and fall of 1776. It was later assigned to defend Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Due to his active military service, McKean missed signing the Declaration of Independence on August 2, 1776, and his signature was not on the printed copy that was authenticated on January 17, 1777. However, he signed the “death warrant” sometime afterward, and some believe he was the “last signer.” 

                                                McKean commanded one of the famed 

                                                                Associator Battalions

Wartime Politico

 Curiously, the Delaware Assembly did not elect either Rodney or McKean to Congress in October 1776. The firebrands had made some enemies, and many remained hesitant about full independence. However, the British victory at Brandywine in September 1777 came too close to home for comfort, prompting the election of both men in October. Despite relentless pursuit by the British and Loyalists, McKean continued to serve in Congress for the rest of the war. He helped draft the Articles of Confederation and was elected President of the Confederation Congress, serving from July through November 1781.

McKean was active in national as well as

PA & DE politics

First Son of Delaware

McKean was active in Lower County politics throughout the period leading up to the war and beyond. He frequently participated at both the national and local levels. He led the effort to make the Lower Counties a separate state, and in August 1776, the assembly selected him to attend a convention dedicated to drafting a new state constitution. 

McKean left his command and rode to Dover, Delaware, like a man possessed, and in one night, created the first draft of a Delaware Constitution, which the assembly accepted in September. This was the first state constitution drafted after the Declaration of Independence. He remained involved in the Delaware Assembly throughout the mid and late 1770s, even as he served in Congress. The British occupied Philadelphia and controlled the Delaware River from October 1777 through June 1778. During this time, both he and his family were at risk of capture by the British, and he had to change his residence about five times. 

                                                            British-occupied Philadelphia

Keystone Judge

While still active in Delaware politics, McKean faced the unusual situation of being appointed a judge in Pennsylvania, serving as Chief Justice from 1777 until 1799. McKean was a leading advocate for a judiciary with the power to overturn a state law if it was deemed unconstitutional. He was a very assertive jurist and established judicial review—the power of a court to strike down laws—before John Marshall established it for the US Supreme Court. His influential 22 years on the bench set precedents adopted by all the state courts nationwide.

                                                    McKean set precedents in jurisprudence

                                                                     before John Marshal

During this time, he served on the Pennsylvania convention, helping to ratify the new U.S. Constitution. Interestingly, since he helped draft the Articles of Confederation, which were later overturned. At the Pennsylvania State Constitutional Convention of 1789-90, he argued for a strong executive and supported the Federalists until 1796, when he became a vocal Democratic-Republican. He was unhappy with Federalist policies. As the Supreme Court justice of Pennsylvania, he supported suppressing the Whiskey Rebellion.

                                                        The Whiskey Rebellion posed legal 

                                                                as well as security issues

Chief Executive

McKean’s career on the bench ended when he was elected Governor of Pennsylvania in 1799. During his first term, he entered office as a partisan zealot, removing Federalists from their positions—the spoils system. By his third term, he had fallen out with his party and allied with the Federalists to fend off a challenge from a fellow Republican. He then replaced the republican officeholders with Federalists. McKean’s combative nature, his support for a strong state executive, and his willingness to turn against his opposition led the Pennsylvania House of Representatives to impeach him in 1807, but he remained in office until his term ended.

                                            Lancaster was the capital of Pennsylvania during 

                                                           McKean's tenure as governor

The Man

McKean was over six feet tall. He dressed stylishly in a cocked hat and a gold-knobbed cane. He had a quick temper, a thin face with a hawk-like nose and fiery eyes. He could be aloof and antagonistic, and by all accounts, he was a solitary man. He only socialized on public occasions. But he was undeniably brilliant and tireless.

                                                    McKean as Governor of Pennsylvania

In his correspondence, the not-so-liked himself, John Adams, paid him tribute by describing McKean as “one of the three men in the Continental Congress who appeared to me to see more clearly to the end of the business than any others in the body.”

The Family Man

The brilliant, active, but often acerbic McKean did find time for a family life. He married Mary Borden in 1763 and had six children with her: Joseph, Robert, Elizabeth, Letitia, Mary, and Anne. Mary died in 1773, and a year later, McKean married Sarah Armitage. He established his new household in Philadelphia, and they had four children: Sarah, Thomas, Sophia, and Maria. McKean and both of his wives were members of the Presbyterian Church. 

                                                                Sarah Armitage McKean

Retirement and Legacy

He spent his retirement in Philadelphia, writing, discussing political issues, and enjoying the wealth he had earned through investments and real estate. In 1790, he co-published "Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States." McKean was a founding member of the controversial (too aristocratic) Society of the Cincinnati in 1785 and even served as its vice-president. He received many honors: an LLD from Princeton in 1781, from Dartmouth in 1782, and from the University of Pennsylvania in 1785. When a second war with Britain threatened in 1812, the man in his eighties, McKean, led a group of Philadelphia citizens to organize a strong defense during the War of 1812.

                                                            McKean with son Thomas

McKean died in Philadelphia and was buried in the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery there. In 1843, his body was moved to Laurel Hill Cemetery. McKean was a dedicated lawyer who worked tirelessly, often juggling multiple tasks, for his community, his state(s), and his country—both in war and peace. This son of Irish immigrants set a precedent for the future laws and governance of the United States and all the states that would join the union. 

                                                        The McKean Grave at Laurel Hill

Committee of Secrets

War in the Shadows

Students involved in insurgencies have long recognized the importance of cutting off the insurgents' external support. Throughout history, few insurgencies or rebellions have succeeded without outside help, which can include moral support, funding, training, weapons, equipment, supplies, political backing, and military aid. 

                                                Philippine Moro insurgents vs the US Army 

Early in the insurgency that would turn into rebellion after Lexington and Concord, the Americans established a way to keep dialogue and coordination among the colonies and later states. It quickly became clear that America would need to reach across the Atlantic as well. Winning over Americans was only one part of the complex struggle now beginning. Securing support in Britain and forming alliances with sympathetic countrymen would also be vital for gaining recognition for the new nation. Furthermore, the European powers would offer fertile ground for support if properly “tilled.”

                                                    Burning of Revenue Cutter, Gaspee at 

                                                      Warwick, RI, early act of Insurgency

A Secret Committee

By the time the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1775, this need for international support resulted in the formation of the Committee of Secret Correspondence via two resolutions of 29 November:

RESOLVED, That a committee...would be appointed for the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain, and other parts of the world, and that they lay their correspondence before Congress when directed.

RESOLVED, That this Congress will make provision to defray all such expenses as they may arise by carrying on such correspondence, and for the payment of such agents as the said Committee may send on this service.

Because of the secret nature of the work involved, the members soon added the word “Secret” to its name. The committee received significant authority from Congress to carry out multiple functions: public and secret diplomacy, intelligence gathering, and public relations/influencing opinion. In many ways, it functioned as both the State Department and the CIA. It served as the Continental Congress’s eyes and ears in Europe and would soon become its arm in that region.

                                                  Extract of Committee's Secret Instructions

First Members

Congress effectively chose the original members of the committee, bringing together notable figures such as Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Johnson, John Dickinson, John Jay, and Robert Morris. Later, additional members joined, including James Lovell, a former schoolmaster, Bunker Hill veteran (arrested by the British for spying), and a Congress member, who developed the committee’s first codes and ciphers. It’s likely that Dr. Benjamin Franklin, who represented the American colonies in dealings with the British government for many years, contributed a wealth of ideas and experience gained abroad. John Jay and probably the others had experience organizing secret meetings and activities on the road to rebellion while surrounded by loyalists eager to expose them.

                                                       The Committee at Work

Tactics and Tradecraft

It is a tribute to the American leaders of the era that they were quick to learn and adopt the most sophisticated techniques and practices long used by the great powers of Europe. They employed clandestine agents abroad, conducted covert operations, created codes and ciphers, used propaganda, and carried out covert postal surveillance of both official and private mail. They made use of open-source intelligence by purchasing foreign publications and analyzing them. Most notably, they established an elaborate communication system that used various couriers. Another major innovation was the development of a maritime capability independent of the Continental Navy, designed for smuggling, moving agents, managing correspondence, and intercepting British ships.

                                                  Secure communications were essential

First Actions

The committee acted quickly. They started regular communication with English Whigs and Scots who supported the ideas, if not all the actions, of the Americans. The experienced and worldly Benjamin Franklin was the most active, reaching out to a wide range of contacts he had built up in Britain and Europe in a sophisticated effort to gain support for the patriot cause.

                                                 Dr. Franklin's experience in London proved 

                                                         invaluable to the new committee

Franklin secretly reached out to Spain through Don Gabriel de Bourbon, a member of the Spanish royal family and Franklin's associate. He subtly suggested the benefits an American alliance could bring to Spain.

                                                                Don Gabriel de Bourbon

                                                         one of Franklin's A-List contacts

Agents at Home

But curiously, France was the first to reach out, sending Julien Alexandre Achard de Bonvouloir to Philadelphia to evaluate the possibility of covert aid and political support.

                                                                 Achard de Bonvouloir

 In December 1775, committee members Benjamin Franklin and John Jay attended a secret meeting with the French intelligence agent de Bonvouloir, who was dressed as a Flemish merchant. 

Franklin and Jay wanted to know if France would help America and at what cost. They stressed an urgent need for arms and munitions, which would be exchanged for American tobacco, rice, and other crops. De Bonvouloir advised that the French government should avoid any involvement in transactions with the rebels. Instead, private merchants would handle them.

                                     

                                      Father of American Counterintelligence - John Jay

Franklin assured de Bonvouloir that America would not reconcile with Britain and that once it declared independence, France should form an alliance. This marked the start of a long-term effort to bring not only French aid but also French arms into the fight.

                                                                            Silas Deane

Agents Abroad

Franklin and Jay were encouraged by French interest in the American cause. In early March 1776, the Secret Committee appointed Connecticut lawyer Silas Deane as a special envoy to negotiate with the French government in Paris. His mission was to secure covert aid and gain political support through Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, Louis XVI’s Foreign Minister. Vergennes skillfully managed both public and secret diplomacy for the French king, handling them with a steady hand.

                                                      Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes

The committee eventually included an American living in London, Arthur Lee, a member of the well-known Lee family of Virginia. Lee had contact with the French playwright Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a polymath, playwright, clockmaker, and diplomat who was also a secret French agent. Using a letter sent by the committee, Lee supplied Beaumarchais with information about American successes—much of which served as propaganda to influence French opinion. Interestingly, people today might recognize Beaumarchais not for his dedication to freedom (and making money) but for writing the Figaro plays: Le Barbier de Séville, Le Mariage de Figaro, and La Mère coupable. These later became operatic adaptations that are still enjoyed today.

                                                                            Arthur Lee

But Beaumarchais was a supporter of the American cause and did not need exaggerated reports to spark his passion for freedom. While working with Deane in Paris, he influenced French Foreign Minister Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, and King Louis XVI to provide the colonies with secret shipments of gunpowder and war supplies. This assistance was crucial in the early years of what had now become a war. The front company Rodrigue y Hortalez (R&H), registered as a Spanish trading firm, was used for this effort. R&H facilitated the shipment of surplus French arms and munitions to the West Indies, mainly to the Dutch colony Saint Eustatius, where American agricultural products were traded for war supplies.

                                               Beaumarchais: Polymath and Freedom-Lover

Deane was responsible for the earliest aid to America’s struggling army through his efforts. Besides organizing secret shipments (with R&H being just one covert operation), he recruited French officers, made introductions, sought ships for privateering, and promoted the American cause among French insiders. Some of the officers he recruited included the Marquis de Lafayette, Baron Johann de Kalb, Thomas Conway, Casimir Pulaski, and Baron von Steuben—a list of notable ex-pat freedom fighters.

                                                                   Marquis de Lafayette

The American commissioners in Paris navigated a whirlwind of intrigue as they wooed and charmed the French while fending off Sir William Eden’s British secret service. Eden had sent an American named Paul Wentworth to Paris when Silas Deane arrived. Deane was familiar with Wentworth, and soon he was reporting on Deane’s activities and later, Franklin’s. Wentworth also recruited Edward Bancroft, the secretary of the American Commission.

                                                        William Eden,1st Baron Auckland

                                                                     & British Spymaster

But Lee was now in Paris, as was Benjamin Franklin himself, who had sailed for France in December 1776. Throughout 1777, the full-court press was in motion. The British and French were secretly opening the American commission's mail through various covert operations. Servants and friends were recruited to spy, influence, and report. Bancroft provided insider information to Wentworth and Eden. And so it went. Meanwhile, Franklin charmed everyone he could, was the toast of Paris, and kept wielding influence. He knew every word and gesture reached Versailles and London, and every step he took reflected that awareness.

                                            Franklin's every move and comment were tracked,

                                                             and he acted accordingly

What's in a Name?

The Committee of Secret Correspondence became the Committee of Foreign Affairs in April 1777, but kept its intelligence functions. As the first American government agency for both foreign intelligence and diplomatic representation, it basically served as the predecessor to the State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency, and today's Congressional intelligence oversight committees. 

Despite the name change, the Foreign Affairs Committee continued to play a key role for Congress, acting as the nation's eyes and ears in Europe. Note: To possibly confuse the British, Congress created a separate "Secret Committee" in 1775 to acquire supplies, which by its nature needed to be kept hidden from British eyes and ships. Many of its members also served on the Committee of Secret Correspondence. It became the Committee of Commerce around the same time its 'sister" committee was renamed the Committee of Foreign Affairs.

 

                                                The Committee of Foreign Affairs combined

                                                 the roles of State and CIA, plus "Oversight"

Payoff

The Committee of Secret Correspondence/Secret/Foreign Affairs Committee’s efforts paid off tremendously when an American army, equipped with arms and munitions secretly supplied by France, forced the surrender of a British army at Saratoga in October 1777. No one in France could recall the last time a British army surrendered to the French. The road to a treaty with France had now become a fast track. However, the committee was not finished. It still had to work out the details of an alliance, future loans to America, and the foundation for negotiations and peace. The capitals of Europe were also a target as the commission aimed to gain support from the Netherlands, Prussia, Spain, and Russia. But those are stories for another time.