The 2nd Baronet of New York

Sir John Johnson

It's somewhat uncommon to feature consecutive profiles of Loyalists, but I've been meaning to highlight a member of a family that shaped British–native relations in the mid-to-late 18th century: Sir John Johnson. John Johnson's father was the renowned Agent of the Crown to the Indians of New York. In that role, Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet of New York, served as the primary intermediary for British interests and managed to establish fairly good relations between the settlers and the Iroquois nations in central New York. This was no easy task, as migrants from New England and other eastern regions sought land, and the Iroquois, known as the most formidable warriors of their time, were not to be taken lightly. William Johnson’s death and the onset of the American Revolution sparked a final conflict between these forces.

Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet of New York

Thrown into this frontier chaos was Johnson’s heir and hesitant negotiator, John Johnson, 2nd Baronet of New York. The younger Johnson was born on November 5, 1741, at Mount Johnson near New Amsterdam, New York. His mother was a local woman of Dutch descent, Catherine Wysenberk.

Sir John Johnson, 2nd Baronet

French & Indian Fighter

John Johnson spent most of his childhood at Fort Johnson on the Mohawk River. After briefly attending Benjamin Franklin’s College and Academy in Philadelphia in 1757, Johnson returned home to answer the call of war drums. At age 13, Johnson joined his father as a volunteer in the French and Indian War. He participated in expeditions to Niagara and Detroit with him. He also attended most of Sir William’s conferences with the Indians, including the one at Fort Stanwix (Rome), N.Y., in 1768 that established the boundary between encroaching white settlers and the Iroquois.

Sir William Johnson hosted Indian conferences at
Johnson Hall

Indian Fighter

The younger Johnson also performed well during Pontiac’s Rebellion in 1763 when he led a successful expedition into the Ohio territory. Two years later, his father sent him to England to broaden his horizons and establish himself as a man of means and social standing. The journey achieved its goals, and Johnson was knighted by King George III in preparation for inheriting his father’s impressive estates in America.

The younger Johnson distinguished
himself during Pontiac's Rebellion

Gentleman Farmer

Johnson returned from Britain as a strong supporter of the crown and looked down on anyone who dared to oppose royal policies. He settled at Fort Johnson and took Clarissa Putman as his common-law wife. But someone of Johnson’s status needed a proper match, and in 1773 he finally agreed to his father’s wish to marry into the New York aristocracy. Johnson left Clarissa Putman, but he still supported her and their two children. He was now able to marry Mary Watts and brought her to Fort Johnson.

John Johnson settled in at Fort Johnson
after inheriting the Baronetcy

The 2nd Baronet

In 1774, Sir William died. John became the 2nd Baronet of New York and inherited over 200,000 acres along with many tenants. However, he did not follow his father’s wish to become the next superintendent of northern Indians. Instead, John lived as a country gentleman in his grand home—Johnson Hall. Due to his social standing and wartime experience, Johnson was made a major general of the militia just before the Revolutionary War began.

At the outbreak of war, the NY
militiamen would have to choose sides

Loyalist Leader

In the lead-up to war, Johnson expressed Loyalist sympathies and started recruiting from his tenants, many of whom were Scottish and English war veterans. This created a sort of personal militia. Johnson even approached the Royal Governor, William Tryon, with a proposal to organize the entire Mohawk Valley in support of the crown. His actions alarmed the local patriots, and when the time came, he became a target.

Governor William Tryon was a key
figure in the run-up to the American Revolution

In January 1776, the Continental Congress authorized General Philip Schuyler, a well-known New York landowner, to organize an army and confront Johnson to remove the threat he and his followers posed to the Albany area. Schuyler fulfilled his task. Johnson’s supporters and followers were disarmed, and Johnson vowed to remain neutral. Still, the local patriots stayed cautious of his intentions.

Fellow New York aristocrat led
efforts against Johnson

A King's Commission

Tensions rose and suspicions grew over the following months. Fearing arrest, Johnson fled with his family and supporters to Quebec in May 1776. Johnson then offered his services to the Governor-General of Canada, Guy Carleton. Carleton appointed him as a lieutenant-colonel of a new unit, the King’s Royal Regiment. Johnson was instructed to use his connections with the Indians to keep them neutral.

Soldier of the King's Royal Regiment

A Failed Campaign

In the summer of 1777, Johnson joined Lieutenant-Colonel Barry St. Leger on his expedition up the Mohawk River. This was part of a three-pronged attack on Albany to control the New York waterways and divide the colonies. Johnson’s men and Indian allies helped St. Leger lay siege to Fort Stanwix (now Rome, NY). St. Leger learned of a relief column marching west to lift the siege. This militia force was led by Colonel Nicholas Herkimer. Johnson’s Indian allies found the perfect ambush spot near Oriskany, and on August 6, a combined Indian-Loyalist force defeated Herkimer, who was mortally wounded.

The Battle of Oriskany

But when news of another relief column, this time led by Benedict Arnold, reached them, Saint Lager’s forces retreated back to Canada, and Johnson went with him. In a fitting irony, the man who avoided taking over his father's role as Indian Superintendent ended up spending much of his time managing Indian affairs for the British, as many hundreds had fled their lands to escape the destruction caused by American settlers.

The failed siege of Fort Stanwix was
a foretaste of the failed British strategy to split the colonies

Guerilla Warrior

But Johnson also found time to conduct an on-and-off guerrilla campaign in central New York. Over the next three years, he gained notoriety in the Mohawk Valley for his raids involving Loyalist and Native forces. Johnson frequently teamed up with Loyalist Colonel John Butler and Loyalist Iroquois Chief Joseph Brant. This formidable group of crown supporters caused chaos.

Chief Joseph Brant was a key ally
of Johnson, and a tireless fighter for the
Iroquois and the Crown

Perhaps his greatest success was in 1780 when Johnson’s strike force raided and burned settlements at Schoharie, Caughnawaga, and Fort Hunter. He even managed to retake his homestead, Johnson Hall. Johnson’s guerrilla tactics caused significant economic hardship and lowered the morale of the American settlers in the area. However, overall, they failed to have a major impact on the war.

Johnson's Raid was his major operation, but in the
 end, the mix of Loyalists and Iroquois could not
hold central New York

Superintendent General

In 1782, Governor-General Frederick Haldimand appointed Johnson as brigadier general on the American establishment, and by a commission dated March 14, 1782, he named him Superintendent General and Inspector General of the Six Nations Indians and those in the Province of Quebec. In accepting this role, he succeeded his cousin Guy Johnson, who was removed due to financial irregularities. This was a challenging position. The war was ending poorly, not just for the Loyalists who were forced to Canada. Johnson had to explain to the disgruntled Iroquois that much of their land was being surrendered to the Americans.

Johnson would not receive the one
appointment he wanted in later life

 A Canadian Founder

After the war, Johnson returned to England like many Loyalists to file claims for compensation from the crown. When he came back to Canada, he became a leader in resettling Loyalists and Indigenous people at Cataraqui (now Kingston, ON). He did remarkable work for the refugees, to the point where he believed he would be appointed as the first governor-general of the new province of Upper Canada. However, when the position was awarded to the other Loyalist, John Graves Simcoe, Johnson was crushed.

Loyalist leader John Graves Simcoe would
receive the appointment Johnson hoped for

After spending several more years in England, Johnson moved to Quebec, where he was appointed to the Legislative Council of Lower Canada. He became a prominent figure among the United Empire Loyalists and a supporter of Indian rights.

A Last Tribute

Sir John Johnson died in Montreal on January 4, 1830. Johnson is regarded as one of Canada's founding fathers. He received a military funeral attended by a large crowd of friends, relatives, acquaintances, and admirers. Additionally, over 300 Native Americans attended, and Chief Joseph Brant delivered the eulogy. During the ceremony, Brant called him the Indians’ “friend and fellow warrior.” Sir John's body was then taken to Mount Johnson for burial.

Sir John was interred in a family vault
at Mount Johnson

Loyal Hillbilly

It has been a while since the Yankee Doodle Spies mentioned the Loyalists – those very proper Americans who remained loyal to the King and Britain during times of political upheaval and bloody war. Usually, these folks were conservative and well-mannered. But they did have their share of tough characters. One of these was a notorious and stubborn orphan from the backwoods of the Carolinas.

Life in the Back Hills

David Fanning was born in Birch Swamp, Amelia County, Virginia, in 1755. In July 1764, Fanning was orphaned. As a result, the young David was bound to Needham Bryan (Bryant), a county justice in Johnson County, North Carolina. The justice provided for his education but was, by Fanning’s account, harsh. Or maybe young David was a bit of a handful. So, in 1773, when Fanning was 18 and of legal age, he left his guardian and moved to Raeburn’s Creek in the western part of South Carolina. There, the young man farmed and traded with the nearby Cherokee Indians. Although life on the frontier was not easy, it was reasonably good for the enterprising young David Fanning.

Fanning in the backcountry

Things started to shift when the American Revolution erupted in 1775. At that time, Fanning was a company sergeant in the Upper Saluda militia of South Carolina. Most upcountry Carolinians sympathized with the crown and viewed the lowland planters and merchants with suspicion. Tensions arose. A delegation from the lowlands forged a fragile truce, which was broken when a local Loyalist was arrested in November. Soon, rumors spread that the rebels were recruiting the Indians to their cause. That was it. After being accosted and robbed by patriot militias, Fanning chose to align with the local Loyalist faction.

Fighting for the King

David Fanning served under Major Joseph Robinson during military operations in western South Carolina. He was part of the force that captured a large Patriot garrison at the key Fort Ninety Six in November 1775. However, Fanning was nearly captured himself in December of that year during the battle at Big Cane Break. Evading the local patriots, Fanning fled to the Cherokee Indians.

The Fort at Ninety Six

Now regarded as a notorious Loyalist, Fanning was captured by the rebels in January 1776. This marked the first of what could be a record 14 times during the war! In some of these instances, he was paroled, but the cunning and relentless Fanning made numerous daring escapes. Between these periods of imprisonment, Fanning demonstrated himself as a ruthless, resourceful, and aggressive Loyalist officer. He tirelessly led partisan units in nearly continuous skirmishes with rebel forces in the region. He was a key figure in the little-known but decisive backwoods civil war that eventually swayed the Carolinians against their British rulers and Loyalist supporters of the crown.

David Fanning made numerous escapes

The Loyalists take a Knee

But by August 1779, most of the Loyalists were losing hope. They had suffered heavy losses, and it seemed like the South would fall to the crown. Many of them, including Fanning, accepted a conditional pardon from Governor John Rutledge. This kept Fanning out of the fighting for several months. Fanning’s many adventures had taken a toll on him. By his own words, he was exhausted, worn out, and looked frail. His numerous wounds and injuries had worn him down. Fanning even agreed to guide Patriot militia units in the backcountry as part of his pardon.

The British capture of Charleston marked a new dynamic in the
southern theater of operations

But things changed when the British shifted their strategy to the south. A British force besieged Charleston, and its fall and occupation led to a British move to secure all the key positions in the state. The decisive defeat of the Continental forces under General Horatio Gates by British General Lord Cornwallis made it clear that the British were here to stay.

The South in Flames

These events reignited the passion of the Loyalists, and they rallied to the cause once more—fanning the flames with them. Bloody civil war erupted again across the southern backwoods, and this time Fanning was at the forefront of the Loyalist effort. With South Carolina under British control and Cornwallis’s army in charge, Fanning and other Loyalist leaders now had a steady flow of weapons and supplies. With the outlook grim for the rebels, Loyalist bands found it easy to recruit and equip fighters.

The Southern Theater would prove Decisive
and violent

This high watermark of Loyalist ascendancy did not last long. One of the American cause’s best generals was sent south to energize the southern theater. Nathanael Green proved a persistent and classic resistance leader. Giving ground when he had to, making stands—successful or not—while keeping his army in the field and active. Cornwallis had to destroy his army. He damaged it, but could not destroy it.

Nathanael Greene's arrival turned the
tide in the Southern Theater

The West is Lost

 Cornwallis would fail to destroy
Greene and make a grave mistake

In his eagerness to pursue the resisting rebel army, Cornwallis used Loyalist units to guard his western flank from Patriot militias threatening it. He dispatched a large Loyalist detachment led by his most experienced counter-guerrilla leader, Major Patrick Ferguson, to disperse the backwoods Patriots. Ferguson was unaware that a large group of "Over Mountain men' was reinforcing the locals. Ferguson was caught on King's Mountain. Surrounded, he fought the hated rebels. The Battle of Kings Mountain was mainly a Loyalist versus Patriot conflict. Defeating the Loyalists shifted the southern theater in the West to the rebels' advantage.

With prospects looking bleak for Loyalists in the West, Fanning took his band and moved east and north to Deep River, North Carolina, where he conducted operations against local patriots. His success led to his appointment as Colonel of the Loyalist militia of Chatham and Randolph counties. For several months, Fanning ruthlessly launched raids throughout western North Carolina. He had now become one of the most feared Loyalist partisan commanders in the region. 

American victory at King's Mountain crushed
the loyal oppositionin the western Carolinas

Guerrilla Days in Carolina

Fanning was a typical guerrilla leader. He would move quickly and strike hard, sometimes with only 12 men. Many of these raids ended with the capture and ransom or parole of key patriot sympathizers and political figures. He took part in about 36 skirmishes in 1781 alone. One of these was a raid on a court session in Chatham County. Fanning’s supporters captured 53 prisoners, including court officials, militia officers, and members of the North Carolina General Assembly.

Fanning's Loyalist militia raised Cain among the patriots

Fanning led the Loyalist militia at the battle at the House in the Horseshoe in the summer of 1781, where he forced the surrender of a Patriot militia force. By the end of that summer, Fanning's notoriety had drawn about 950 Loyalist men to his command. He was ready for the big time.

Conventional War Success… and Failure

With a sizable force at his disposal, Fanning was determined to use it. And he did. On September 12, 1781, he led nearly 1,000 Loyalists in a surprise attack against the rebel forces at Hillsboro, North Carolina. At that time, Hillsboro was the main Patriot base in the region and served as a temporary capital. He overwhelmed the Patriot defenses and captured 200 prisoners, including Governor Thomas Burke. Hillsboro marked his most notable success in the war.

After the victory at Hillsboro, Fanning is ambushed
at Lindley's Mill

But Fanning’s brief success as a traditional force commander did not last long. He led his victorious column, along with prisoners, back to Wilmington. When he reached the area around Lindley’s Mill, a rebel force of 400 under Brigadier General John Butler launched a fierce attack on Fanning’s men. The fighting was intense, and the surprised Loyalist force would have fallen apart if not for Fanning’s personal leadership. He held off Butler’s attacks and managed to bring his column safely to Wilmington, but he was badly wounded in the process. Thanks to Fanning's resolve, the unfortunate Governor Burke was imprisoned by the British Army on James Island near Charleston, South Carolina.

NC Gov Thomas Burke 

Decline in Fortunes

In November 1781, the British withdrew from Wilmington upon news of Yorktown. The war seemed over, but the Loyalists who remained with the colors would not surrender so easily. The bitter civil war left many desperate for revenge and unwilling to compromise or submit to the rebels they despised. Fanning was one of them. He continued leading partisan bands against the patriots. He launched a series of bitter attacks on patriot settlements that persisted into 1782—most of us consider that year one of quiet as the final treaty was negotiated.

Loyalist Provisionals

But Fanning was tired and worn out. The clever backwoodsman saw the signs of change. It was time to go back to a normal life. As a first step toward that, he married Sarah Carr, a 16-year-old young woman from the settlement of Deep River, North Carolina.

Charleston Harbor would provide many Loyalists'
final glimpse of the country the fought so hard to keep loyal

Fanning finally accepted a conditional truce from the local American government and agreed to suspend further military action. Now resigned to his fate and that of his cause, Fanning and his young bride went to Charleston, where he was deported along with other Loyalists to British Florida. Fanning’s success against the patriots and his notoriety as a guerrilla caused the North Carolina legislature to ban him from ever entering the state. This seems a bitter reminder of his accomplishments.

Oh Canada!

Like many other members of the Loyalist diaspora, Fanning did not stay long in his first refuge. After a few months, he traveled to New Brunswick, Canada—one of thousands who moved there for a better life under the crown. His natural leadership earned him a seat in the legislative assembly until he became involved in a shocking scandal in 1800. Fanning was charged and convicted of raping 15-year-old Sarah London and was sentenced to hang. The evidence against him was limited—mainly her testimony—but Fanning had few friends among his Loyalist peers. The fierce man from the hills had brought his fiery ways to Canada. He appealed the sentence, and instead of being hanged, he was banished from New Brunswick.

Canada provided refuge for many Loyalists
after the American Revolution

Fanning proved resourceful when given a second chance. He moved to the small port town of Digby, Nova Scotia. Fanning spent the rest of his life in Digby. He built a comfortable house and engaged in farming, fishing, and shipbuilding. Although he still wanted to return to New Brunswick to settle his financial affairs, his petitions to Thomas Carleton, Provincial Secretary Jonathan Odell, and other officials went unanswered.

Digby, Nova Scotia, was one of many
Loyalist landing places  in Canada

In any case, considering his eight years of fighting and mayhem, the loyal and steadfast David Fanning managed to live to a reasonably old age. He died on March 14, 1825.

A Loyal Life Well Lived?

The tough and wiry, Fanning was a stubborn and determined man in both war and peace. As a Loyalist militia leader, he proved zealous and often highly effective. However, he was neither gentle nor the type of intellectual loyalist, refined and smug, who sat out the war in the secure comforts of New York, Charleston, or England. Instead, Fanning fought tenaciously, fiercely, and sometimes cruelly against former friends and neighbors. Rather than earning admiration, his successes made him unpopular with the privileged Loyalist gentry of New Brunswick.

But the last laugh and irony from this angry and combative former hillbilly was his epitaph in the Trinity churchyard at Digby: “Humane, affable, gentle, and kind – A plain honest open moral mind.”

Colonel David Fanning resting place
in Digby, Nova Scotia

In my take, it should have read: “I’m Loyal – Love it or Shove it.”

The Legend and the Legion

Polish Bad Ass

In a war that saw many "bad asses" serve on both sides, Kasimierz (Casimir) Pulaski ranks near the top. And if not for a stray round of grape, he might have fought his way to the top of the list. He fought for freedom on two continents and stayed undaunted throughout a career marked by professional setbacks. Although he never saw his homeland freed, he helped push a nascent republic toward hard-won freedom. Something tells me he was glad to sacrifice himself for a cause that changed the world.

Bad Ass on two continents

Lineage

Kasimierz (Casimir) Pulaski was born in Podolia, Poland, on March 4, 1747, to Count Josef Pulaski, a member of the minor Polish gentry. He came from a family with knightly traditions—primarily in warfare. Pulaski’s family fought under Poland’s King John III Sobieski against the Turks in the 17th century—a campaign that helped save Europe. During the siege of Vienna in September 1683, the decisive battle of the campaign, the famous Polish winged hussars, heavily armored lancers, charged into the enemy and forced a retreat, marking the start of the long decline of the Ottoman Empire. Pulaski’s lineage can be traced back to these brave horsemen.

Charge of Winged Hussars at Vienna

Fighting For Poland

And Poland needed men of fighting spirit. By the time Kasimierz was born, the once-powerful Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth faced intense political pressure from its increasingly strong neighbors. Austria, Prussia, and Russia had managed to manipulate the weak King Stanislaw II. Pulaski was well educated, and in 1768, he joined the Confederation of the Bars, formed by his father to oppose the Russians. He fought in several successful actions, including the famous defense of the monastery fortress of Czestochowa in 1771, but he was eventually defeated and exiled to Turkey. As a result, Poland underwent its first partition (of three). Pulaski spent his years in Turkey trying to rally support against their common threat, the Russians. When this effort failed, he sailed for France, now penniless and broken. But then he learned of the American Revolution!

Pulaski led forces of the Bar Confederation
at Czestochowa in 1771

Fighting for Freedom

If he could not free Poland, he would dedicate his sword to a new cause for freedom. Pulaski approached American agents in France, Silas Deane and Benjamin Franklin, seeking a commission in the Continental Army. Franklin provided him with a letter of introduction, and the excited nobleman sailed for Boston in July 1777. After consulting with members of the Continental Congress, the young Pole volunteered his services to General George Washington as an aide. He served alongside Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. Although this resulted in a defeat for the Americans, quick and decisive actions by Pulaski may have saved the Continental Army from total destruction. He fought at Germantown, covering Washington's retreat, patrolled the area around Valley Forge during the winter, moved to Trenton, and then, under Gen. Anthony Wayne, fought the British at Haddonfield, New Jersey.

Pulaski was one of many foreign officers who
served the cause of freedom

Failure to Communicate

Nobody doubted Pulaski’s heroism under fire or his dedication to the Cause, but he was quarrelsome, headstrong, and overly sensitive about rank—like many Americans. His hot temper caused problems that were made worse by his limited English skills; he often spoke in French to communicate. His constant arguing and fussing reached a peak when he had a falling-out in spring 1778 with General Anthony Wayne, who was also quick to anger. Pulaski even threatened to resign over it. Washington convinced him to stay with the army and asked Congress for a separate command. This request was granted, and on March 28, 1778, Congress authorized Kazimierz Pulaski to form a unit that would soon be called the Pulaski Legion.

I am Legion

The Legion's Banner

A legion is an old term for a combined arms force. During the Revolutionary War, this typically meant infantry and cavalry – but occasionally, a few light cannons were also included. The Pulaski Legion was recruited near Baltimore and consisted of Americans, Germans, Frenchmen, Irishmen, and Poles. It flew a red banner. Pulaski’s unit originally had 200 infantry and 68 cavalry armed with, believe it or not… lances. Polish cavalry was famous for its lancer units, which often charged to victory over Cossacks, Russians, Turks, and Germans. No wonder the brave Pole made his own version.

The Legion saw immediate action along the New Jersey coast, where it tasted its first blood at Egg Harbor on October 4, 1778. Unfortunately, it did not earn glory. The renowned British Major Patrick Ferguson led his own legion and surprised Pulaski’s force in camp, resulting in heavy casualties. It turned out that one of Pulaski’s men deserted and provided the British with intelligence about the unit positions.

Major Patrick Ferguson

Washington sent Pulaski’s unit to a quiet area to recover. The Legion garrisoned the upper Delaware to defend against Indian raids. Pulaski’s pride was wounded, and he became angry over the assignment. His stern nature caused another issue. Pulaski court-martialed his subordinate, Major Stephen Moylan, over a perceived insult. He also threatened to resign once again. With the patience of Job, General Washington stepped in once more. He reassigned the quarrelsome Pole and his Legion to the Southern theater.

Cavalry and Infantry of the Legion

Since the center of gravity had shifted south, this move not only took Pulaski out from under Washington’s direct oversight, but it also guaranteed him a tough fight to match his combative nature.

For the South

So in the spring of 1779, Pulaski and his Legion joined American forces defending Charleston, South Carolina. He arrived just in time for a whirlwind! The British strategy had shifted southward, hoping that an overwhelming show of force would break the will of the patriots in the region. In late 1778, they had taken Savannah, Georgia, and now they aimed to move north toward the Carolinas.

The British Strategy turned South to separate
the Carolinas and Georgia from the rebellion

The British under General Augustin Prevost threatened the southern capital and prepared for a siege. In a daring move, Pulaski attacked the British on May 11, 1779. Outnumbered, the Legion was defeated and pushed back. When he returned to the city, he learned that morale was low and patriot resolve was waning. The steadfast Pulaski urged the inhabitants not to surrender so easily. They held out long enough for the American southern commander, General Benjamin Lincoln, to arrive with reinforcements. Pulaski often suffered from bouts of malaria contracted in the hot, swampy coastal lowlands of the south. But the stubborn and proud officer refused to leave active service.

At the start of September, General Lincoln prepared to launch a mission to retake Savannah with long-awaited French support. Cavalry would be involved, and Pulaski was sent to Augusta, Georgia, to join General Lachlan McIntosh. Lachlan and Pulaski’s forces protected the advance of Lincoln’s attack. Pulaski captured a British outpost near the Ogeechee River. His Legion then served as an advance guard for the allied French units under Admiral Charles Hector, Comte d'Estaing.

But d’Estaing faced a tight deadline. Relying on his naval support and with hurricane season quickly approaching, he chose to risk everything on a surprise attack on October 9, 1779. Pulaski was appointed commander of the entire combined Franco-American cavalry force. Impulsive as ever, Pulaski launched a full-scale cavalry charge against heavily fortified British defenses. However, Pulaski was hit by a grape shot, and the attack was thoroughly repelled.

Pulaski was mortally wounded by grapeshot

Mortally wounded, Pulaski was transferred to a transport ship, the Wasp, in hopes of reaching Charleston. However, the brave Pulaski died two days later—February 11, 1779. He was buried at sea. And his Legion? His men were reassigned to Colonel Charles Armand’s legion for the rest of the war.

Pulaski monument in his native Poland

Legacy

Despite his haughty and quarrelsome nature, Casimir Pulaski is remembered in many ways. Naturally, in Poland, he is recognized as a man who fought for freedom on two continents and bears the title "Soldier of Liberty." In America, his service and sacrifices are honored through the many streets, bridges, counties, and towns that bear his name.

Monument to Pulaski in Washington, DC

Pulaski gave his last full measure outside Savannah, Georgia, where a large monument honors his sacrifice fighting for the city during the American Revolution. In 1833, the new fort being built on Cockspur Island outside Savannah was named Fort Pulaski in honor of Casimir Pulaski.

Fort Pulaski

Primarily, he is the man who gave the American colonists their first real mounted legion. The U.S. cavalry later adopted its guidons in red and white, the national colors of Poland, to honor the bravest cavalryman of the War for Independence, cementing his legacy as "The Father of the American Cavalry."

The First Baronet

Who is Peter Parker?

This edition of the Yankee Doodle Spies will recount the exploits of one Peter Parker. No, not that Peter Parker. Our Peter Parker was not a web-crawling teen like his comic book namesake. But before he was a teen, he was skipping along the rigging with a speed and grace that would make even Spider-Man jealous. This is our first naval topic in a while and focuses on a little-known British sailor who rose through the ranks due to long service, some patronage, good timing, and courage. Sometimes, all it takes to rise to the top is simply being there.

Skipping up the rigging

Midshipman

Our Peter Parker was born in Ireland in 1721, the son of Vice-Admiral Christopher Parker. Like all legacy officers of the Royal Navy, he started his career early, serving as a cabin boy and midshipman. During this period, he served on several ships under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon of the West Indies station at the beginning of the War of Jenkins' Ear.

Vice Adm Sir Edward Vernon

War of the Austrian Succession

The eight-year War of the Austrian Succession provided plenty of action for the Royal Navy and numerous opportunities for up-and-coming young officers like Peter. Parker received his lieutenant’s commission in the summer of 1743 aboard the HMS Russell, a second-rate, 80-gun ship of the line. He served on several warships at various stations, most notably in the Mediterranean, where he participated in the battle of Toulon on February 11, 1744, aboard the flagship of Rear-Admiral William Rowley, the 90-gun HMS Barfleur.

Admiral William Rowley

In May 1747, he was promoted to captain and commissioned a captured French privateer as the 24-gun frigate HMS Margate. Captain Parker commanded this vessel in the Channel, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean. When she was paid off in April 1749, he had a brief stint aboard the 66-gun HMS Lancaster before going on half-pay with the end of the war. It was common practice to place officers on half-pay during periods between active conflicts.

Young Lieutenant Parker served at Toulon

Seven Years of War

Captain Parker remained ashore on half-pay for several years while overseeing the construction of the 44-gun HMS Woolwich in Portsmouth. With the outbreak of the Seven Years’ War, he went to sea on the Woolwich and commanded it on a voyage to the Baltic Sea. However, he fell seriously ill during the trip after catching a fever that swept through the ship.

After he recovered, the navy sent him to the Leeward Islands in December 1756, where, in January 1759, he transferred to the 50-gun HMS Bristol. Parker commanded the Bristol during the unsuccessful campaign against Martinique and later in the campaign that captured Guadeloupe.

Taking Fort Louis at Guadeloupe was one
of many sea-land campaigns in Parker's career

In 1760, he returned to his home station in the Channel, where he took command of the 64-gun HMS Montague. Parker captured several prize ships while navigating the narrow but dangerous waters between Britain and the Continent. His success earned him command of the 70-gun HMS Buckingham and a squadron that dismantled French fortifications on the Isle d’Aix. The next year, he took part in the assault on a fort at Belle-Isle. This was typical 18th-century warfare, involving the capture of positions and negotiations to secure a better peace. But fierce action and naval skill made this possible. His last wartime command was the 74-gun HMS Terrible just before the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

HMS Terrible in action

Another Half-Pay Hiatus

The 1763 Treaty of Paris placed Parker and most of his fellow officers on half-pay. This half-pay status aimed to cut costs while keeping experienced officers available for future conflicts. In the 18th-century Royal Navy, there was always the next war. Parker stayed without a command for nearly ten years. But then things changed. Knighted in 1772, Sir Peter Parker was given command of the second-rate but heavily armed (90-gun) HMS Barfleur when he rejoined the service in 1773. By then, tensions were rising in the North American colonies. In 1775, Parker was assigned to command the fourth-rate 50-gun HMS Bristol, but more importantly, he was soon to command a squadron and promoted to commodore.

Ships returning to Plymouth

War of Rebellion

In February 1776, Captain Peter Parker was appointed commodore of a small squadron at Plymouth and tasked with transporting several Irish regiments under General Charles Cornwallis to America. The destination was the Cape Fear region of North Carolina. This was part of a complicated plan in which he would work with North Carolina’s infamous Royal Governor Josiah Martin and General Henry Clinton to rally Loyalist support in the unrest-filled colony.

Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet

Ill-Fated Southern Rendezvous

Bad weather and bad luck thwarted these efforts. A rough Atlantic voyage followed, and by the time Parker’s fleet reached its rendezvous with Clinton, the expected Loyalist uprising they depended on had been crushed. To their dismay, they learned of the decisive battle at Moores Creek Bridge on February 21, 1776. 

The resettled Scots Highlanders of the Carolina hill country had agreed to march to the coast in support of the crown. Ironically, many of them had been resettled after the disaster at Culloden decades earlier in Scotland. Now, they had taken up the claymore for the crown that defeated them in 1745. The Highlanders’ attack was easily scattered by the rebels from the coastal Tidewater—thus, there was no force to link up with.

Battle at Moores Creek Bridge

But no armada should ever go to waste, so Parker and Clinton shifted their focus south to Charleston, South Carolina. The town was seen as being poorly defended. Quickly capturing it would provide a good naval base in the South and a safe haven for Loyalists across the region. The idea of winning hearts and minds remained a central part of the British approach to the war.

Charleston

On June 1, 1776, Parker’s flotilla was off Charleston, but the lack of charts (see the Yankee Doodle Spies Blog Post on hydrography) forced the British to sound the waters while they waited for the tides to favor an attack. It was a good plan given the circumstances, but the delay allowed the American commander, Colonel William Moultrie, time to strengthen the defenses of Fort Sullivan on Sullivan’s Island.

Moultrie's gallant defense of Fort Sullivan
spared the South for a few years

On June 28, Parker finally managed to land British troops on Long Island, the island further up the coast to the northeast of Sullivan’s Island, and positioned ships where they could bombard the island. Despite a severe bombardment, the defenders held their ground, shielded by Fort Sullivan’s palmetto walls. The spongy bark of the palmetto logs absorbed cannon fire. The defenders had only a few guns, but Moultrie utilized these effectively. He concentrated their fire on Parker’s flagship, HMS Bristol. In a stroke of bad luck, the ship’s cable was severed. Out of control, the Bristol swung around, and the guns from the fort unleashed enfilade fire upon her.

Our commodore bravely stood his post on the quarterdeck in the finest tradition of the Royal Navy. But a heated cannonball, deadly red-hot shot, burned his pants off his rear end and caused serious injuries. Meanwhile, things worsened further. To avoid capture, the frigate HMS Actaeon ran onto shoals and ran aground. Under American fire, the resourceful British sailors set their ship ablaze to prevent it from being captured. The intense fighting continued for 10 hours. Finally, with casualties exceeding 250, Parker signaled the flotilla to break off, and they disengaged.

Shoals, palmetto logs, and well-aimed guns set
our commodore's pants afire

Parker’s failure at Charleston preserved the South for the cause, at least for a few years. The resulting boost in American morale rallied southern patriots and subdued southern Loyalists. In this type of war, morale would prove to be decisive.

True North

With their commodore recovering from his burns, Parker’s flotilla returned to New York. There, it joined the fleet under Admiral Richard Howe. Commodore Parker recovered enough to command the squadron that captured Long Island in August 1776. At that time, his ships supported the landing of British troops on Long Island, forcing the rebel army to retreat from New York City.

Parker's leadership was part of a brilliant sea-land
campaign that resulted in victory on
Long Island and New York

In December 1776, Parker was entrusted with command of a flotilla that carried an invasion force under Henry Clinton in another successful operation: capturing Newport, Rhode Island. This gave the British an extra base from which to threaten Massachusetts and Connecticut. More maritime success for the commodore that would not go unnoticed.

Sir Henry Clinton

Commodore Parker stayed at Rhode Island for nearly a year with two 50-gun warships and several frigates under his command. Although the assignment seemed like a remote posting, his career was about to take a turn toward higher rank: flag officer!

A Flag Officer

Comte de Grasse

  Parker was promoted to rear admiral on April 28, 1777. He was soon named commander of the Jamaica Station (not the subway stop). By that time, British strategy had shifted to capturing as much of the West Indies as possible. The rest of the war focused on supporting efforts there against the French and Spanish. He performed his duties well and was promoted again to rear admiral in March 1779.

His time in America ended in 1782, and Parker returned to England in August of that year. He had the distinct privilege of carrying the captured French admiral, Francois-Joseph-Paul, Comte de Grasse, and his staff as prisoners from the Battle of the Saintes. Despite the defeat at the Saintes, de Grasse gained honors for his victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake in 1781-a rare defeat of the Royal Navy that set the stage for American victory. One can only wonder about the sea stories they shared over wine during the voyage back! In London, de Grasse would set the stage for negotiations that led to the Treaty of Paris, which ended the American War for Independence.

High Command

Service in American waters brought Parker great distinction, despite Charleston. He was elevated to baronet in 1783 and appointed commander of Portsmouth Harbor, the home port of the Royal Navy. During this time, he met and mentored a young Lieutenant Horatio Nelson, the future victor of Trafalgar. Parker helped Nelson early in his career, and for that, the British should hold him in high regard. Parker was named admiral of the fleet in September 1799 after the death of Admiral Lord Howe. He was also appointed a general of marines. Sadly, one of Parker’s last official acts was serving as the chief mourner at Vice-Admiral Lord Nelson’s funeral on 9 January 1806.

Parker would mentor a young Horatio Nelson
and sadly preside at his funeral

An MP

While not unusual for military officers of that era, Parker served in Parliament as the MP for Seaford from 1784 to 6. In 1787, he became the MP for Malden, holding the position until 1790. Parker’s West Indian prize money enabled him to build an estate in Essex, although his parliamentary address was registered as Bassingbourn in Cambridgeshire. He supported the government but delivered only two speeches during his time in the House of Commons. 

As a Member of Parliament, Parker held pro-slavery views, stating that “the abolition of the Africa Trade would, in my opinion, cause a general despondency amongst the Negroes and gradually decrease their population and consequently the produce of our islands, and must in time destroy near half our commerce and take from Great Britain all the pretensions to the rank she now holds as the First Maritime power in the World.”

Parliament

Family Life

True to his class and position, Parker made a good match in his family life by marrying Margaret Nugent. They had two sons and two daughters, with one son, Christopher, rising to Vice Admiral.

Admiral Sir Peter Parker, 1st Baronet, was regarded as tough and opinionated, yet well-respected for his composure and coolness in action. After all, how many admirals continued to fight with their pants seared off? While he was considered cantankerous, he met his match with Margaret, who had a very strong personality. During his command period in Jamaica, she was almost his equal in managing the station. He died in London on December 21, 1811, and was buried at St. Margaret's, Westminster.

Peter Parker's resting place at
St. Margaret's Church

Legacy

Peter Parker's career, reminiscent of Forrest Gump, spanned decades, continents, battles, and interactions with prominent figures of the 18th-century Royal Navy — a path that was not unusual. After all, building an empire often requires men to place themselves in strange situations, sometimes for years at a time. Naval officers frequently came from a long line of naval leaders. 

As we see, Parker's lineage was notably distinguished. Besides being the son and father of an admiral, he was also the grandfather of one. Parker's use of patronage helped elevate his son Christopher (who served under him) to captain and then admiral at a young age. Christopher's son, Captain Peter, the renowned 2nd Baronet, also served under his grandfather and alongside Horatio Nelson. 

The second Peter Parker fought in America, just like his father and grandfather, during the War of 1812. In 1814, near Baltimore, he was shot in the pants during combat, similar to the first Sir Peter — though sadly, it proved to be fatal. He was buried at St. Margaret's.

Captain Peter Parker, 2nd Baronet