Gentleman Johnny

 

This edition of the Yankee Doodle Spies begins a series that profiles key historical figures in the upcoming novel of the acclaimed series, The North Spy. As a minor spoiler, this part of Jeremiah Creed's adventures centers on the British invasion of New York from Canada in 1777. No one is more pivotal to that event than John Burgoyne.

The flamboyant and controversial figure at his best, Burgoyne embodies the classic noble-warrior-literati-celebrity archetype. As distinctive a personality as any archetype can be... His nickname, Gentleman Johnny, reflects how his soldiers see him—and how he perceives himself.

Military Brat or Bastard?

Burgoyne was born on February 24, 1722, in Sutton, to Captain John Burgoyne and his wife Anna Maria, the daughter of a wealthy merchant. Speculation suggests that young John might be a bastard—the illegitimate child of Lord Bingley. Bingley became John’s “godfather” and named him in his will as his heir if his daughters did not produce male heirs.

There was definitely money available to give John a head start in life. So at age 11, Burgoyne began attending Westminster School in London. There, he made some useful friends (always the goal), including Thomas Gage – a future General and the last Royal Governor of Massachusetts. Another close friend was James Smith-Stanley, also known as Lord Strange, who was the son of the wealthy and influential Lord Derby. At 15, Burgoyne joined the British Army by purchasing a commission in the Horse Guards.

John Burgoyne

Since the Guards were based in London and his duties were light, he had plenty of time and opportunities to socialize with high society. He soon earned the nickname, "Gentleman Johnny" for his stylish uniforms and fast lifestyle. However, he quickly accumulated large debts, and it is believed he sold his commission in 1741 to pay them off.

Return to the Colors

The War of the Austrian Succession gave the young dilettante a chance to reinvent himself or, better yet, to rebuild his military career. The British Army was expanding to counter the threat from France, and in April 1745, he was commissioned in the newly formed 1st Royal Dragoons. Unlike most “bought” commissions, as a new regiment, Burgoyne received his commission without any cost. 

Promoted to lieutenant later that year, he served with his regiment at the Battle of Fontenoy, leading troopers in several charges against the French. By 1747, Burgoyne had saved enough money to buy a captaincy—a rank that would give him the platform to get noticed, but the end of the war in 1748 ended any chances of further active service.

Battle of Fontenoy

Cupid’s Arrow

After the war, Burgoyne began courting Charlotte Stanley, the sister of his close friend at Westminster School, Lord Strange. When Charlotte's father, Lord Derby, disapproved of the match, John and Charlotte eloped, causing a scandal and leading his father to cut off her substantial allowance. Since officers on inactive duty received no pay, Burgoyne was forced to sell his commission for 2,500 dollars. 

The young lovers then traveled around Europe, mainly in France and Italy. But it wasn't just about love. During this period, Burgoyne became a dedicated fan of the arts and literature, and this journey helped inspire his creative side. He also began studying treatises on warfare and touring battlefields and fortresses. 

Cupid's Arrow

Return to England and the Army

When his wife gave birth to their only child, Charlotte Elizabeth, they moved back to Britain. Arriving in 1755, his former schoolmate Lord Strange helped the couple reconcile with Lord Derby, who then assisted Burgoyne in purchasing a captaincy in the 11th Dragoons. 

In 1758, Burgoyne joined the prestigious Coldstream Guards, where the ongoing Seven Years' War helped him rise to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In June 1758, he took part in a raid on St. Malo, France, where British forces burned French ships. This was followed by another raid on Cherbourg under then-Captain Richard Howe, who would later lead the Royal Navy in North America during the American War.

Richard Howe

A New Kind of Command

But John Burgoyne quickly developed new ambitions—to command one of the British Army's two new cavalry regiments, the 16th Light Dragoons. This new unit allowed John to apply some of his ideas about military science in practice. Burgoyne was no longer a dilettante. Unlike others who did not get directly involved in managing their regiments, he personally oversaw the formation of his unit and recruited officers from the landed gentry in Northamptonshire. 

He aimed to create a model unit built around his principles of military service: honorable officers, a strong sense of duty, and well-trained, well-equipped men treated with respect. He did not want his men to be the stereotypical dregs of society. To attract high-quality recruits, he worked to provide his men with the best horses, uniforms, and equipment.

Young Cavalry Commander

Unlike British Army traditions, Burgoyne encouraged his officers to get to know the “other ranks.” His concept of warfare emphasized that men should be independent thinkers in combat, not mindless robots like Frederick the Great’s. To facilitate this, he created and published a transformative regimental code of conduct. He also expected his officers to be better educated, urging them to spend time each day reading and learning French, since many of the top military texts were in French, such as the writings of Marechal Maurice de Saxe.

Marechal Maurice de Saxe

Politics, War & Arts

Somehow, Burgoyne found the time and money to get elected to Parliament for Midhurst in 1761. But the next year, he headed to Portugal as a new brigadier general. He gained recognition for capturing Valencia de Alcántara and then defeating the Spanish in the Battle of Vila Velha. During the battle, Burgoyne directed Lieutenant Colonel Charles Lee, future Deputy Commander of the Continental Army, to charge a Spanish artillery battery. 

Charles Lee

Burgoyne returned to Britain at the end of the war. In 1768, he was re-elected to Parliament and appointed governor of Fort William, Scotland. He was outspoken and somewhat “progressive” in Parliament—advocating for military and colonial reform, especially within the East India Company. By this time, he was a major general, but he also dedicated a significant amount of his time to the arts. He had enough free time to write plays and poetry. In 1774, his play The Maid of the Oaks was performed at the Drury Lane Theater.

Drury Lane Theater

Member of the Dream Team

When the American colonial resistance broke out into war in April 1775, Lord George Germain, Minister for the Colonies, sent three of the most promising officers willing to face the Americans (several others refused to serve against fellow Britons). So the dream team of John Burgoyne, William Howe, and Henry Clinton, all highly experienced and renowned veterans, sailed to Boston. With General Thomas Gage in command, there was a surplus of officers, so Burgoyne did not take on field command. However, the debacle at Bunker Hill and the siege gave him plenty of opportunities to learn from others’ mistakes.  

General Thomas Gage

Home and Back and Home

Frustrated, Burgoyne returned to England in November 1775. His wife Charlotte died in February 1776, which deepened his sorrow. Although Burgoyne never remarried, he started a long affair with a married actress, Susan Caulfield, with whom he had four children between 1782 and 1788. The children were raised in Lord Derby's household, and the oldest became Field Marshal Sir John Fox Burgoyne.

General Sir Guy Carleton

His wife gone and eager to prove himself, Burgoyne returned to North America in the spring. This time, arriving at Quebec, where he served under Governor Sir Guy Carleton, who had just stopped the American invasion. Although Carleton managed to push American forces out of Canada, he failed to follow up with a drive on Albany, NY. Burgoyne became critical of Sir Guy’s caution and once again sailed for Britain.

A Brilliant Scheme

Among his other traits, Burgoyne was a smooth talker. Once back in London, he began pressing the Minister for the Colonies, Lord Germain, who was the key figure for defeating the rebellion, about his plan to win the war in 1777. 

The plan involved a three-pronged attack: a thrust south from Lake Champlain aimed at seizing Albany, supported by a detachment led by Lt. Colonel Barry St. Leger approaching from the west through the Mohawk Valley, and a northward advance up the Hudson River from New York led by Sir William Howe to seal the Americans' fate. 

The goal was to cut off New England from the rest of the American Colonies—a classic divide and conquer strategy. Burgoyne’s plan was brilliant but ultimately impractical due to political and geographical challenges.

Lord George Germain

What we have here is Failure to Communicate

Confusion between Germain and Lord Howe, commander-in-chief in North America, would be their undoing. Howe planned to move south toward Philadelphia that year. It is unclear when Germain informed Burgoyne that his support from New York City would be limited. Still, Burgoyne landed in Canada and assembled more than 7,000 men – British regulars, German auxiliaries, as well as some Canadians and Indians.

Burgoyne devised a brilliant but complex plan

Howe (sic) He Lost

I will not delve deeply into this complicated and crucial military event. My future novel, The North Spy, will cover most of the major and some of the minor activities. Burgoyne’s plan was thwarted by several factors. 

Time was not on his side, as the campaign season in the north was short, and he started late and slowly. The terrain was some of the most difficult in North America, with dense forests, numerous bodies of water, and mountains to navigate. Additionally, the Americans rallied most fervently against the incursion, spurred on by atrocities committed by Burgoyne’s Indian allies – both rumored and real. 

Delays & False Assumptions

The initial delay was gathering enough vessels to exploit the excellent waterways—a virtual superhighway leading straight into the heart of the colonies. It was already late June when they arrived on Lake Champlain. Burgoyne’s assumption that widespread Loyalist and Indian support would rally around him was immediately shattered. 

This was a consistent misjudgment in British thinking throughout the war. There was never a large number of Loyal Americans eager to fight, and only a few Native Americans and Loyalists joined his forces. Although Burgoyne captured the northern stronghold, Fort Ticonderoga, by early July, he made a critical mistake by pursuing the Americans. He started diverging from his supply line as his men were lured further away from the waterways. 

Fort Ticonderoga

A Small Win & A Big Loss

A minor victory at Hubbardton on July 7 only gave him false confidence. Burgoyne’s advance south toward Forts Anne and Edward was delayed by the retreating Americans, who blocked roads and trails with trees and destroyed any bridges. Around this time, he learned Howe was sailing to Philadelphia – the crucial push from the south would not happen. Meanwhile, the supply situation worsened as the army lacked enough transport to cross the region's primitive roads.

Battle of Hubbardton

The need for supplies led him to send a force of Germans foraging to the east, where they stumbled into a hornet’s nest of American militia at Bennington on August 16. The New England militia under John Stark defeated the British, inspiring more men to join the cause. 

Many of Burgoyne’s Indian allies began to sense the changing situation and started to drift off to plunder and return home. To make matters worse, Barry St. Leger was turned back at Fort Stanwix. The other part of the triad was gone. Burgoyne had two options: consolidate at Fort Ticonderoga and continue the fight next year – or take a gamble and push farther south.

Battle of Bennington 

The Die is Cast

He took the plunge. Burgoyne decided to abandon his supply lines and attempt a “brute squad” push on Albany in time for winter quarters. He crossed to the west bank of the Hudson on September 13. But just south of Saratoga, a rapidly growing American army, fortified with defense works designed by famed Polish engineer Thadeuz Kozciusko at a place called Bemis Heights, waited. 

The weak Major General Horatio Gates commanded the force, composed mainly of New England and New York militia, but he also had some elite continental troops sent north by George Washington. Gates may have been called "Granny" (his nickname), but the next line of command included some of the war's best leaders, such as Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, Colonel Dan Morgan, Enoch Poor, Ebenezer Learned, and Benjamin Lincoln.

General Horatio Gates

Freeman's Farm

Burgoyne hesitated. His army was weakened and morale was dropping. Although Gates was happy to stay behind his defenses and wait (which wasn't a bad idea), he let Arnold try a strategy. On September 19, Arnold and Morgan attacked Burgoyne's troops at Freeman's Farm. Intense fighting broke out. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the British retreated to regroup.  

Battle of Freeman's Farm

Bemis Heights

With their supply situation critical, many British commanders recommended a retreat. Burgoyne anxiously hoped that a small diversion from NYC launched by former dream team member Henry Clinton would draw some of the Americans south of Albany. But Clinton’s move was too little, too late. Yet unwilling to fall back to Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne tried a last desperate move at Bemis Heights on October 7. 

A strong column under General Simon Fraser was smashed, and Fraser, his best subordinate, was killed by a sniper. So were precious regulars and Germans who would never be replaced. Burgoyne showed personal bravery and was nearly shot several times by American marksmen. When Fraser's column was repulsed, the Americans launched their own attack and punished the British, although they failed to take and hold the British defenses. But Burgoyne had been beaten.

Battle of Bemis Heights

An “Unconventional” Surrender

The British retreated to their camp near Saratoga. Meanwhile, the Americans had cut off his retreat to the north and were daily harassing his lines with sniper fire. Stuck in two pitched battles and now unable to fall back on supply lines or break southward, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17 at Saratoga. 

Yet “Gentleman Johnny” tried to make the best of a bad situation through a technical protocol. He managed to persuade Gates (a former British officer) to allow him to sign a “convention” instead of an unconditional surrender. Also, he and his men were to be returned promptly to Britain. 

Congress later annulled the deal. While British and German officers were sent home on parole, the “other ranks" laid down their arms under the watch of American militia and Continentals, and roughly 5,800 soldiers marched off to captivity in Boston and eventually Charlottesville, Virginia.

Burgoyne Surrenders at Saratoga

Home in Disgrace

Saying Burgoyne returned to Britain in disgrace is an understatement. This was one of the worst defeats in British history – surpassing Malplaquet, Fontenoy, or Carillon. The American militia had routed a British army in the field – convincing France to openly ally with the emerging American nation, later joined by Spain. The impact on world history would be profound.

Burgoyne's demand for a court-martial

was denied

Attacked by the government for his failures, Burgoyne tried to clear his name by blaming Germain for not ordering Howe to support his campaign. He demanded, but did not receive, a court-martial to clear his disgrace. Instead, King George III stripped him of all titles. Once again, Burgoyne was out of the army. But not for long.

Political Winds

Frustrated by the lack of support from Lord North’s administration, whom he had strongly backed, Burgoyne switched his political allegiance from the Tories to the Whigs. Soon, things turned around for Burgoyne. 

Things went south for Lord North -

to Burgoyne's advantage

When Lord North’s cabinet fell in 1782, Burgoyne gained the favor of the Whigs, and his rank of major general was restored along with a colonelcy in the King’s Own Royal Regiment. Burgoyne maneuvered to secure a top military appointment—commander in chief in Ireland—and also became a privy councilor. 

However, he left the government when Lord Rockingham’s administration collapsed a year later. Still, this allowed him time to focus on his literary projects, which had become his main passions besides his mistress.

Burgoyne Reinstated

Acclaimed Playwright

Burgoyne wrote two romantic comedy plays: Maid of the Oaks, completed by 1774, and The Heiress, written in 1786, which is arguably his best work. He also collaborated with Richard Brinsley Sheridan on the production of The Camp in 1778. In 1780, he wrote the libretto for William Jackson’s The Lord of the Manor. Burgoyne translated Michel-Jean Sediane’s Richard Coeur de Lion for a semi-opera at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1788.

Actress Frances Abington 

in Maid of the Oaks

Legacy

Despite his failed strategy and campaign at Saratoga, John Burgoyne is best remembered for his literary achievements among contemporary and post-Revolutionary War Britons. He was most admired for The Heiress, which was a great success and beloved by many both before and after his death. Gentleman John Burgoyne died suddenly at his Mayfair home on June 3, 1792. He was buried at Westminster Abbey.

Burgoyne's Legacy was his plays

The Tailor Spy

Irish Sympathy

The Irish in the American Revolution had their heroes and villains on both sides of the conflict. Although they were celebrated for decades of resisting and fighting their British oppressors, there was little Irish support for the colonials fighting the distant war. The average Irishman was just trying to survive, and many were recruited into British regiments in Ireland. In America itself, Irish immigrants, like the rest of the population, were divided in their loyalties. However, one transplanted son of Erin would play a secret role in helping to free his adopted nation – and perhaps seek some revenge on the British.

Hercules Mulligan at work 

Until recently, only historians and a few enthusiasts of Revolutionary War history knew the name Hercules Mulligan, but it gained worldwide fame through the hit Broadway musical, “Hamilton.” Indeed, Mulligan’s story was connected to that controversial Revolutionary War officer, political operative, and Founding Father. For Hercules Mulligan and his family, in many ways, they provided Alexander Hamilton with the support every new immigrant needs to reach the next level.

Early Days

Hercules Mulligan moved from Coleraine, County Antrim, Ireland, to New York City with his parents, Hugh and Sarah Mulligan, when he was six years old. The year was 1746—long before the French and Indian War and all the political and economic events that would lead to the fight for America. Hercules's father quickly became a successful accountant in New York, and the family prospered in the colonies. Along with Hercules, two brothers also came; notably, his oldest brother Hugh, who became the owner of an import-export business that employed a young man from Nevis named Alexander Hamilton.

King's College

Hercules attended King’s College (now Columbia) and initially became an accountant before switching to the haberdashery business. His first shop was on Water Street, but he later moved to the more fashionable Queen Street in 1773 to attract a wealthier and more influential clientele. That same year, his brother Hugh introduced him to the young prodigy Alexander Hamilton. Hercules took Hamilton under his wing, and Hamilton boarded with Mulligan and his family while attending King’s College.

Secret Politics

While Hamilton’s politics were formed at King’s College, it remains uncertain when and how Mulligan started sympathizing with the rebel cause. Maybe hidden Irish sympathies and resentment toward the harsh Penal Laws in his homeland influenced him. Or was it the events after the French and Indian War—the same events that led more than a third of the king’s loyal subjects toward a different political system? Still, the connection and bond clearly formed during those early days of growing revolutionary fervor.

Stamp Act Protest

At some point along the way, possibly as early as 1765, Hercules helped write an underground tabloid called The Constitutional Courant that opposed the Stamp Act. Mulligan later became a founding member of a radical faction within New York’s Sons of Liberty, organized to defend the colonists’ rights and oppose British taxation. He was also involved, if not a leader, in the mob inspired by the Sons of Liberty that attacked British soldiers in 1770 during what became known as the Battle of Golden Hill. 

Battle of Golden Hill

A Model Citizen

Although he led a secret political life, Hercules publicly remained a member of the establishment. The young Irishman married well—his wife was Elizabeth Sanders, the niece of a Royal Navy admiral and a well-connected member of New York's social elite. The outgoing Irishman leveraged his wife's family connections to grow his business and build relationships with New York’s upper class—most of whom were strong Loyalists. Later, as more British regulars garrisoned New York, he gained a circle of officers as both clients and contacts. 

British-occupied New York

The outgoing haberdasher placed detailed ads in Rivington's Gazette and other leading Tory newspapers—ads aimed at drawing top-tier customers and officers with descriptions of “superfine cloths, gold and silver lace, fancy buttons, and epaulets replete with heavy bouillon.” If you build it, they will come. And come they did. Choosing cloth, accessories, measuring, and fitting all took time—time that could lead to slips of the tongue, nuggets, and the knowing winks of a proud and haughty clientele trying to impress the popular haberdasher. 

Secret Rebel

Mulligan was involved in an incident on August 24, 1775, an attempt against the HMS Asia, which was anchored in New York Harbor. Under the cover of night, a group of New York militiamen, including Mulligan's company known as the "Corsicans," took control of the artillery battery at the southern tip of New York Island (Manhattan). Hercules and his young boarder, Alexander Hamilton, were among them. However, someone had alerted the crew of the HMS Asia, and it fired its own guns on the rebels.  

HMS Asia in New York harbor

Mulligan threw a rope around one of the guns to pull it to safety. As he struggled, Hamilton approached and, despite his small size, dragged the gun away. Hamilton then calmly rejoined the front lines to help move more guns – 20 were taken. Interestingly, one of the shots from the HMS Asia struck the roof of Fraunces Tavern, which later hosted General Washington’s farewell in 1783. With Hercules's support, young Hamilton was promoted to captain and commander of an artillery battery in July the following year – just in time for the British attack on New York.

Artillery would team Hercules with Alexander Hamilton

In 1776, Mulligan was among the Sons of Liberty who tore down a large statue of King George III in Bowling Green. They then melted its lead into musket balls for the rebels. He also joined the New York Committee of Correspondence, a crucial tool for rallying support among the people and keeping the colonies coordinated. An attempt to escape the city failed, and Mulligan stayed in New York after Washington's army was expelled during the summer 1776 New York campaign. By September, New York was occupied by the British, and the situation demanded more than political protests—it required espionage. But to do that effectively, Hercules would need to pretend to be a Loyalist. Since many changed their allegiances during this time, it didn’t attract much suspicion.

King George III statue tumbling down

Tailor Spy

Exactly when our “model citizen” became a spy remains unclear. Fittingly, such matters were not recorded, and secret agents often operated under cover names, code names, or numbers. It is believed Alexander Hamilton suggested him to Washington while serving as aide-de-camp in 1777. However, some sources indicate that the haberdasher did not actually report to Washington until 1779. In any case, the transition was smooth, if not inevitable.

Alexander Hamilton as aide-de-camp to General Washington

At his clothing shop, Mulligan often measured his clients, talking with them and gathering insights through conversation. He was also very attentive to military and political events in the city. Years of secretly waging a political war had sharpened Mulligan's skills, making him an excellent intelligence operative in the occupied city.

The perfect venue for eliciting 

nuggets from powerful customers

As housing for wealthy men became scarce in occupied (and fire-damaged) New York, Hercules opened a few rooms in his home to British officers—an excellent way to avoid suspicion, gather intelligence, build relationships, and develop leads. Some believe Mulligan reported through the Culper Ring—the Long Island-based spy network made famous by the fictional TV show TURN. He might have done so. The main contact for the ring, Robert Townsend, operated his business just down the street from Mulligan’s haberdashery. However, Hercules used other methods too. In fact, Washington’s top intelligence officer and spymaster of the Culper Ring, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, once asked the commander in chief about Mulligan’s status and activities. He was worried that Mulligan's activities might pose a threat to his ring. He would not have made the inquiry if Mulligan was one of his assets.

Major Benjamin Tallmadge

Courier

So how did Mulligan smuggle his intelligence out of the city? One method was through his African American servant, Cato. Cato’s status allowed him to pass through British lines without attracting much attention, as Africans were believed to be loyal to the British (and most were). Some think Samuel Culper used Mulligan’s servant as an alternate reporting channel at least once. Cato made many trips across the lines, but on his last one, he drew enough suspicion to lead his captors, likely local Loyalist militia, to beat him badly. Despite the harsh treatment, Cato did not give up his mission or his boss. In the end, Mulligan used his high contacts to secure Cato's release, although his courier days were over.

Fraternal Affair

Hercules’s older brother, Hugh, was also involved in espionage. His import-export company, Kortwright & Company, conducted business with the British military and many influential Tory merchants in New York. As a shipper, he could visit ships in port, inspect facilities, and track the movement of supplies—offering valuable intelligence on upcoming British operations.

Hugh Mulligan had access to British shipping plans

Saving the Indispensable Man

Little is known about the details of Hercules Mulligan’s reports, but he is credited with providing intelligence that saved General George Washington’s life on at least two occasions. That alone could make him one of the most important figures of the war. 

Cato's message from Hercules saved Washington

Once, a British officer came to Mulligan late at night looking for a coat. Hercules started showing him different coats while joking and questioning his customer, who carelessly revealed he was planning to capture George Washington. Mulligan sent Cato away as soon as the officer left, allowing Washington to escape to safety. Another time, the British found out about Washington’s plan to ride to Rhode Island along the Connecticut shoreline. Luckily, Hugh Mulligan was contracted to supply the British vessels, and he quickly told his brother. Once again, Cato slipped out of the city to warn Washington.

Under Suspicion

The friendly and well-connected Mulligan did come under suspicion at least once during the war. Ironically, this suspicion came from the infamous traitor himself, Benedict Arnold. Arnold was now in New York, holding the rank of Brigadier General in the British Army. One of Arnold’s tasks as commander of the West Point garrison was to help organize resistance against the British in and around New York City. In that role, he suspected that the tailor might be one of General Washington's sources.

Benedict Arnold - British Brigadier General

Washington excelled at “compartmentalizing” operations. Very few of his closest confidants knew who his spies were, and those who did had only the knowledge absolutely necessary.

Hercules under questioning

Arnold had Hercules arrested. Having been interrogated twice before by the British, Mulligan managed to deflect questions and keep his cool. These skills—along with his reputation as a loyal subject and friend to the British—helped him through. Since Arnold lacked any real evidence to back his accusations, our tailor-spy was quickly released.

Under Suspicion (Again)

Hercules was a victim of his own success. By serving as the loyal haberdasher to the British and Tories for nearly eight years, he strengthened his reputation as a collaborator among his fellow New Yorkers—a group known for its cynicism. Patriots and Whigs accused him of being an active Loyalist and a traitor to the cause. After the British departed at the end of 1783, his thriving business and standing in New York society were in serious danger. Many Tories were driven out of town, and their properties were seized. There was no reason to believe that this would not also be Hercules’s fate.

British evacuation of NYC

But the hand of His Excellency, General George Washington, stepped in. After the war, Washington is known to have quietly reached out to many previously unknown individuals and made it clear they were under his special approval. Many of these are believed to have been covert intelligence operatives: secret agents, spies, and couriers. 

True Friend of Liberty

While in New York City, a grateful George Washington visited Mulligan’s haberdashery, had breakfast with the man to whom his life was owed, and was fitted for a new set of clothes, dubbing the secret patriot “a true friend of liberty.” This act protected Mulligan from being labeled a British sympathizer and collaborator. Beaming with pride, Mulligan commissioned a sign that he proudly displayed outside his 23 Queen Street (now 218 Pearl Street) store: “Clothier to Genl. Washington.”

Queen Street post-war

Although Cato’s fate remains unknown, Mulligan fought for democratic ideals in post-war America and co-founded the New York Manumission Society with his longtime friend, Alexander Hamilton. Our tailor-spy died in 1825 at age 80 and is buried next to Alexander Hamilton in Trinity Church.

Trinity Church 1776 pre-NYC fire

The Surgeon Spy

Perhaps the most intriguing case in the world of Revolutionary War espionage is that of Doctor Benjamin Church. An enigma wrapped in American history, Church embodies all the traits of an ideal patriot – and the ultimate traitor.

Doctor Benjamin Church

Yankee Pedigree

Church was a blue-blooded descendant of Yankee ancestors and the envy of the Colonial Dames. Born on August 24, 1734, in Newport, Rhode Island, he was the son of Benjamin Church, a Boston merchant and deacon of the Hollis Street Church. Church hailed from a family of New England military, civil, and religious leaders that traces back to the Mayflower through his great-great-grandmother Elizabeth Warren Church, daughter of Richard Warren, who arrived on the Mayflower.

Benjamin Church was born in Rhode Island

Raised for Prominence

Young Benjamin studied at the Boston Latin School, the typical springboard to Harvard College, from which he graduated in 1754. He then studied medicine under Dr. Joseph Pynchon. Afterward, like many American surgeons, he completed his studies in London, where he married Hannah Hill. Upon returning home, he quickly built a reputation as one of the city’s best young physicians and surgeons, even treating the eye problems of the lawyer and future founder John Adams.

Future  president John Adams was Church's patient

Political Turmoil

In the decade leading up to the break with Britain, Massachusetts, especially Boston, was at the center of increasing discontent and unrest. Benjamin Church appeared to be actively involved in these events. After the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770, he was the one who examined Crispus Attucks’s body and treated some of the wounded. This involvement positioned him as a staunch Whig, and in 1773, he was chosen to deliver the annual “Massacre Day” oration, a yearly event designed to ignite anti-British feelings. He demonstrated a talent for oratory. 

The Boston Massacre

Dr. Church became a leader of Boston’s Sons of Liberty, working with key figures like Joseph Warren, Sam Adams, John Adams, and Paul Revere. By 1774, the well-known surgeon was a delegate to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and later joined its Committee of Safety, the colonial group responsible for preparing for armed defense.

Our Surgeon Goes to War

April 1775 marked the official start of hostilities between the American colonists, especially those in New England, and the Royal authorities. Although independence was not yet a declared goal, the fight for American rights resembled a war. Our favorite surgeon found himself caught in the middle of it. In May 1775, Church traveled to Philadelphia, where he discussed the military situation in Massachusetts with Congress. As head of the Committee of Safety, he signed the order for the construction of defenses at Breed's Hill and Prospect Hill. 

Breed's Hill defenses

In July 1775, he was appointed Director General and Chief Physician of the newly established Medical Department of the Army, making him head of both the hospital department at the first army hospital and the first headquarters of regimental surgeons. This prestigious appointment placed him at the peak of his career. 

Doctor Gloom?

Interestingly, Church proved to be an indifferent medical administrator and faced a barrage of complaints from the army’s regimental surgeons about his management of the medical system. He pushed back, claiming jealousy was the real motivation behind his critics, and soon asked to be relieved of his duties. Why would a renowned and highly trained surgeon (18th-century term for a physician) show any sign of failure in what should be a core skill? Perhaps our doctor had other priorities occupying his mind.

As chief army surgeon, Church was 

responsible for medical supplies

Other Things

Other clouds swirled around the standing Whig leader. In the world of espionage, these were labeled anomalies and indicators. Although they were present, it would take an overt event to start bringing things together. There were suspicions about his allegiance to the cause, particularly the cause of independence. 

At that time, there still might have been prominent Whigs who were unsure about breaking completely with Britain. But was he one of them? Yes, Church had an English wife, and his brother-in-law was a well-known Tory printer, John Fleming. However, many had connections to Britain and the Tories, so he couldn’t be seen as entirely unusual. As rebellion approached, Church gained a reputation as a notable patriot writer and poet. Still, it turns out that he sometimes responded to his own patriotic open letters in the press with “op-ed” pieces that took the Tory side! 

Advertisement for John Fleming's Printshop

As it would later be revealed, he also had at least one meeting with General Thomas Gage, which was reported, probably by the Mechanics, a spy network run by Paul Revere (see the Yankee Doodle Spies post on them). Church dismissed it—like many suspected spies do too easily. What was then unknown was that Church was in debt, some of which was caused by keeping a mistress. And she was not his first, as it turned out.

Did Paul Revere's Mechanics have 

the doctor in their sights?

A House of Cards

In July 1775, Doctor Benjamin Church’s scheme unraveled when a secret letter was intercepted and decoded. A cipher message was sent to a British officer in Boston named Major Cane through a former mistress. But Eros intervenes in strange ways—the letter was intercepted by another of the woman's ex-lovers and sent to the new Continental Army commander-in-chief, General Washington, in September. 

It took some effort to decode, but they were rewarded because it contained information about the American forces gathered around Boston. Although little of the information was critical, the message clearly showed Church’s loyalty to the King and sought instructions for further secret correspondence. A bombshell striking Washington’s headquarters couldn’t have been more explosive than this news!

King George III

A General Court Martial

During the court-martial in Cambridge that immediately followed, Church admitted to writing the letter (a typical ploy) but insisted he aimed to display the Continental Army’s strength to deter an attack while it was still low on ammunition. He believed it might also help bring about an end to hostilities. While impressing the British probably benefited Washington’s position, this belief showed Church’s ambivalence. Because there was no “espionage statute” and America wasn’t yet an independent nation and therefore could not be “betrayed,” the court, presided over by Washington, concluded that Church engaged in a “criminal correspondence with the British.”  

General Washington penned a report 

following Church's court-martial

Report to Congress

On October 5, 1775, General George Washington wrote to John Jay, the President of the Continental Congress, to notify him that a letter from Dr. Benjamin Church, the surgeon general of the Continental Army, to Lt. Gen. Thomas Gage, the British commander in chief for North America, had been intercepted. His case was then forwarded to the Continental Congress for punishment, along with this report from Washington to the President of Congress:

I have now a painful though necessary duty to perform, respecting Doctor Church, the Director of the Hospital. About a week ago, Mr. Secretary Ward, of Providence, sent up one Wainwood, an inhabitant of Newport, to me with a letter directed to Major Cane in Boston, in occult letters, which he said had been left with Wainwood some time ago by a woman who was kept by Doctor Church. She had before pressed Wainwood to take her to Captain Wallace, Mr. Dudley, the Collector, or George Rowe, which he declined. She gave him the letter with strict injunctions to deliver it to either of these gentlemen. He, suspecting some improper correspondence, kept the letter and after some time opened it, but not being able to read it, laid it up, where it remained until he received an obscure letter from the woman, expressing an anxiety as to the original letter. He then communicated the whole matter to Mr. Ward, who sent him up with the papers to me. I immediately secured the woman, but for a long time she was proof against every threat and persuasion to discover the author. However she was at length brought to a confession and named Doctor Church. I then immediately secured him and all his papers. Upon the first examination he readily acknowledged the letter and said that it was designed for his brother, etc. The army and country are exceedingly irritated.

Crime and Punishment

Because there were no actual laws or a death sentence, Church was sentenced to an indefinite prison term and kept in solitary confinement in Norwich, Connecticut. When he became ill in January 1776, he was released from jail and allowed to move around under guard. In May of that year, he was sent back to Massachusetts on bail and remained in prison until 1778, when the Massachusetts Banishment Act ordered him to be exiled to Martinique in the West Indies. Soon after, he set sail, but the schooner carrying him was never heard from again. It was believed to have gone down in a storm on the open sea.

Church would spend most of his life in prison before exile

A Spy Exposed

Doctor Benjamin Church’s case was one of the mysteries of the American Revolution. Many believed he was wrongly judged, and he certainly thought so himself. After all, his credentials, services, and pedigree were spotless. Although he admitted to certain acts, he insisted strongly that he was just keeping channels open and trying to feed the British bogus information. Torn between two sides, he may have genuinely believed his own story.

Yet he was in debt, had mistresses, and clearly had the ego to take bold action. Was his visit to British-held Boston to meet the Royal Governor and Commander in Chief, General Gage, an act of perfidy or misguided statesmanship?

Did a mistress or mistresses do him in?

Years later, the truth was revealed when scholars gained access to General Gage's files. In the early 20th century, these papers became available to historians. They contained letters with information about the rebel army—correspondence carried by Church that could only have come from him. The good doctor was definitely providing the British army with intelligence from at least early 1775, possibly even earlier. 

General Thomas Gage's files finally outed the spy

A Spy’s Motive

Why did the esteemed Dr. Benjamin Church engage in espionage? Was it because of overwhelming debt? Disputes and grudges against rivals in American leadership? Was there ambivalence about truly breaking ties with Britain? Family connections? Loyalty to the crown? Or perhaps it was for the most frustrating reason of all – simply because he could.