Frustrated Founder

Many leaders in the Continental Army had prior experience in the British Army, and some of them became quite controversial. Foremost among these was Charles Lee (General Washington’s second-in-command), who allowed himself to be captured by the British and was relieved after the Battle of Monmouth. (see blog post A General Disaster). Another was General Horatio Gates, who won at Saratoga but fell into disgrace at the Battle of Camden. Our profiles of Richard Montgomery (see blog post, First to Fall) and Hugh Mercer (see blog post, Surgeon General from Scotland) show that these men had no shortage of courage under fire – giving the last full measure. 

General Charles Lee - one of many former

 British officers to serve in the Continental Army

But this edition highlights a man whose legacy of service to his new nation is complex and, in some ways, tragic. Arthur St. Clair was a man of intelligence and industry whose inconsistent military talents hide a career of dedication, patriotism, and significant frustration.

From Medicine to Military

Born in Truro, Scotland, in 1736 to a fairly well-off family, St. Clair attended the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1757, he changed his career by purchasing a commission as an ensign in the 60th Foot (Royal American Regiment) and traveled to America that same year to fight in the French and Indian War.

Private - 60th Regiment of Foot

French and Indian War

Ensign St. Clair served under the renowned General Jeffrey Amherst, assisting in the capture of the massive French fortress at Louisburg in July 1758. The following spring, he was promoted to lieutenant and served under General James Wolfe at Quebec and during the fighting on the Plains of Abraham, the decisive battle of the war. Lieutenant St. Clair was mentioned in the dispatches for his heroism when he seized the regimental colors from a fallen soldier and carried them to victory. No amateur when it comes to courage.

Fall of Louisburg

Husband, Settler & Public Servant

His regiment was later based in Boston, where Cupid’s arrow struck deeply. His lovesick war hero married Phoebe Bayard (from the prominent Bowdoin family) in May 1760. Now settled into marriage with a well-known family, the life of a British officer became less promising. So he resigned his commission in 1762 and moved to Pennsylvania to seek his fortune as a surveyor. Two years later, he made his home permanently in Ligonier Valley on the colony’s western frontier, where land was inexpensive and easy to acquire. He eventually became the largest landowner and one of the most influential men in the colony’s western region. 

18th Century Pennsylvania

Like many prominent men of his era, he began to build an impressive record of public service, which included roles such as surveyor of Cumberland County, justice of the court of quarter sessions and of common pleas, member of the proprietary council, recorder, clerk of the orphans’ court, and chief clerk of Bedford County courts. At that time, Bedford County covered what would later become Fayette, Westmoreland, Washington, Greene, and parts of Beaver, Allegheny, Indiana, and Armstrong counties. For quite a while, he was essentially the law in a land that was almost the wild west, filled with hunters, Indian traders, backcountry settlers, transients, and all kinds of questionable characters. He was especially recognized for dealing fairly with the local Indians.

Political Winds

St. Clair was caught in the territorial disputes between Pennsylvania and Virginia, which claimed a large part of the western colony. When Virginian John Connolly seized the area near today’s Pittsburgh for Virginia and tried to undermine Pennsylvania’s settlers, St. Clair had him arrested. Virginia’s governor had Pennsylvanians detained and complained to Governor Penn about St. Clair. The governor supported his magistrate, but the border dispute between the two colonies was not resolved until Congress intervened years later.

Militia Leader

Like many prominent colonial leaders, Arthur St. Clair played a key role in the local militia. In January 1776, he was appointed colonel of a regiment, which he raised over the winter and then force-marched north to join the invasion of Canada, reaching Quebec on April 11. However, the campaign was already lost with Montgomery's defeat and death while storming Quebec, along with the American loss at Chambly. All he could do was assist General John Sullivan’s retreat.

The campaign in Canada was lost by the time

St. Clair arrived at Quebec

Cool Under Pressure

But his knowledge of the area from the last war and his military experience helped save a large part of the routed army. St. Clair was himself injured and barely made it back after being cut off by advancing British forces.

Major General Arthur St. Clair

 He was promoted to Brigadier General in August in recognition of his service and talents, and he was ordered to join General George Washington’s army in New Jersey, where he took command of a couple of militia regiments. The campaign also turned into a rout, and Washington’s forces disbanded as they retreated from Brunswick to make a narrow escape across the Delaware River.

Trusted Counsel

St. Clair went to work recruiting men for the beleaguered Continental Army and was rewarded with a brigade command, which he led capably during the critical American victories at Trenton, Assenpink Creek, and Princeton in the rapid counterattack of December 1776 – January 1777. Some accounts say that St. Clair devised the brilliant night maneuver from the Assenpink to cut off the British and threaten Princeton. Most other commanders recommended retreat, but Washington followed St. Clair’s advice, leading to the American victory at Princeton and possibly saving the rebellion from collapse. This explains Washington’s continued support for St. Clair during later controversies.

Assenpink Creek

Return to the North

By the spring of 1777, tensions were again escalating in the northern colonies. A large force led by General John Burgoyne (see blog post, Gentleman Johnny) was gathering north of Lake Champlain. The Continental Congress President John Hancock ordered the newly appointed Major General Arthur St. Clair to take charge of the strategically vital but thinly manned fortress – Fort Ticonderoga. However, when St. Clair arrived in early June, he found the fort in poor condition. Located on the southern shore of Lake Champlain, the fort was the first target in a British invasion plan aimed at capturing Albany and dividing the colonies. Everyone hoped the fort would act as a barrier to stop Burgoyne’s advancing troops. 

General John Burgoyne

Fort of Futility

But as the Americans should have learned from the debacle at Fort Washington the previous year, a powerful fort that is undermanned becomes a liability, not an asset. Ticonderoga was undermanned, with men who were ill-fed and ill-equipped. Powder and provisions of all kinds were scarce. There were barely 2,500 men in a fort that needed 10,000 for a proper garrison. Burgoyne had over 8,000 British and German troops along with plenty of artillery and supplies.

Fort Ticonderoga

Outflanked and Outgunned

The British soon moved into the area and quickly took control of Mount Defiance, where they installed a battery that commanded Ticonderoga. A coordinated attack would soon break through the defenses and easily damage the defenders. During a war council, St. Clair decided to evacuate the post and save the army for another day. It was a wise but debated decision.

British guns on Mount Defiance would dominate the area

around Ticonderoga

Flight by Night

The night retreat in the face of an overwhelming enemy was a huge risk. St. Clair managed it, but not without a major mistake when French-born General Fermoy’s unexplained fire at his quarters warned the British. With redcoats and Germans close behind, the beleaguered Americans ran through the woods; a water route was avoided except for the wounded. St. Clair aimed not only to save his army but also to draw the British away from their path of advance, slow them down, and extend their supply lines. 

Retreat, Divide and Conquer?

He split his forces, and the rear guard delayed the British pursuers, who were chasing them like hounds after a rabbit. St. Clair hoped to divide the British and herding them into the deep northern woods rather than letting them sail effortlessly down Lake George. They were barely ahead of the enemy. General Simon Fraser’s advance guard – the elite of the British army – collided with some of St. Clair’s forces at Hubbardton. It was a hard-fought victory for Fraser. Another British force – Germans, in fact – was defeated when they tried to ease a worsening supply situation by taking livestock at Bennington in today's Vermont.

Hubbardton - a defeat, but also a diversion

Ignominy

Despite the wisdom of St. Clair’s successful retreat, which diverted and slowed the British, split their army, extended their supply lines, and prevented a valuable field force from being captured, he was condemned from all sides, especially by those who favored General Horatio Gates over Washington as commander in chief. Although the 2,500 men he managed to save formed the core of Gates's forces at Saratoga, which ultimately defeated the British, St. Clair was stripped of all command. 

General Horatio Gates

Yet General Washington continued to support him and recalled him to the main army, where he remained at the commander-in-chief’s side and served as an aide at the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777. At St. Clair's request, a court-martial was held in 1778. St. Clair was acquitted, “with the highest honor, of the charges against him.” But any hope of battlefield command was lost.

Selfless Service 

He continued serving, however, and was with Washington when General Cornwallis’s army surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781. The war in the south was still ongoing, and St. Clair was assigned to lead a column of troops into the Carolinas to support General Nathanael Greene, who was working to clear out British garrisons from Ninety-Six to Charleston and Savannah. St. Clair's Pennsylvania reputation proved valuable when a serious mutiny broke out among the Pennsylvania Line regiments in 1783. He was called upon to appeal to his fellow Pennsylvanians, and he helped to calm the mutineers, who had planned an armed march on Congress.

Yorktown Surrender

Post-War Politics

St. Clair returned to Pennsylvania and began a distinguished career in political service to the new nation. He joined the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783. Later, St. Clair was elected as a delegate to the Confederation Congress. During his term from November 1785 through November 1787, he helped establish the new national government. It was a time of firsts and challenges. In February 1787, the members met and elected St. Clair as President of the Confederation Congress (essentially the leader of the federal government). He faced many responsibilities during his one-year term.

Confederation Congress

 Shays's Rebellion broke out in 1787 over tax conflicts. Discontented farmers, mainly war veterans, protested against their state government. Despite the turmoil caused by the political crisis surrounding Shays's rebellion, Congress successfully passed a significant law during that time – the Northwest Ordinance. This established the blueprint for western expansion, governance, and admitting new territories into the United States. Most notably, during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was working on drafting a new United States Constitution, which would replace the old Confederation Congress with a stronger federal government consisting of three branches.

Shays's Rebellion

Frontier Governor

With the creation of the new Northwest Territory, Congress appointed Arthur St. Clair as its first governor. The Northwest Territory included what are now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Establishing his seat of government in the settlement he named “Cincinnati,” he began his work. His accomplishments were significant in helping settle and develop the land, as well as preparing it for eventual incorporation into the United States. As a former magistrate, he established the territory's first set of laws, known as Maxwell’s Code. He also invested personal funds to help clear land for settlement. 

Northwest Indian War

St. Clair’s western accomplishments were controversial. He began building forts to protect settlers and defend against tribes. He negotiated the Treaty of Fort Harmar – forcing the Indians off their tribal land. Instead of settling Indian claims, the treaty led to outright conflict. 

Fort Harmar

The tribes grabbed their tomahawks and went on the warpath, causing panic among western settlers. Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket led the coalition, aided by former British Loyalists Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. The tribes defeated a 1,500-strong militia led by General Josiah Harmar in October 1790.

Chief Blue Jacket

The following spring, St. Clair was promoted to major general of the U.S. Army and personally led the response. Once again in uniform, he took to the field in October 1791 with two Regular Army regiments and militia – a column of 1,400 men marching deep into the Ohio wilderness to the headwaters of the Wabash River. Meanwhile, thousands of Miami, Delaware, and Shawnee warriors had gathered in the dense forests, awaiting a chance to strike at the hated enemy. 

 St. Clair was appointed major general a second time

Massacre

The trap was sprung on November 4th — the warriors unleashing fierce sheets of lead into the Americans, who fell in large numbers. With less than half of his force remaining, St. Clair led a desperate bayonet charge to hold off the warriors closing in for the final blow. He managed to rescue the survivors but at the cost of over 600 killed and 300 wounded. The Battle of the Wabash stands as the worst disaster in what would become a long series of conflicts between the advancing Americans and the Indian tribes.

St Clair's defeat at the Wabash

More Ignominy

St. Clair was widely condemned by everyone, including his long-time ally, President Washington, who initiated an investigation into the causes of the disaster— the first investigation by the executive branch under the new United States Constitution. The inquiry cleared St. Clair of any wrongdoing, but he was forced to resign from the army. 

President Washington launched an inquiry

Politics & Policy

St. Clair managed to remain governor of the Ohio Territory, a testament to a combination of political factors (he was a strong Federalist in a largely Democratic-Republican west) and his recognized administrative skills. The republic had descended into intense partisan politics, and the frontier was no exception. St. Clair aimed to create two Federalist-leaning states from the Ohio Territory, hoping to increase Federalist influence in Congress. He made significant personal investments in the region, but the federal government, always short on cash, failed to reimburse him.

Northwest Territory - St. Clair's Legacy

The Democratic-Republicans in Ohio opposed him and accused him of partisanship, duplicity, and arrogance. He did not help his case—resisting the direction from the new capital in Washington and its now Democratic-Republican administration. An 1802 statement rejecting Congress’s control over the territory led to President Thomas Jefferson removing St. Clair from the office he had held for more than a decade. 

President Thomas Jefferson removed St. Clair

Home to Ligonier

Losing his western investments and running out of funds, St. Clair moved to western Pennsylvania. He and his wife lived with their daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family in a cabin located between Ligonier and Greensburg. Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818. He was 81 years old. His wife Phoebe died shortly afterward and is buried beside him under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park, downtown Greensburg. 

St. Clair's final home 

Frustrated Founder

Despite being frustrated by two controversial military defeats, St. Clair was a good officer, a capable general, and most importantly, an adept military thinker. Why else would Washington keep him at his side after Fort Ticonderoga? He was a skilled administrator, and his efforts helped not just win a nation but build one, both at the seat of government and on its frontier. This makes the little-known medical student from Scotland one of our nation's founders in every sense of the word. 

St. Clair's Grave

Gentleman Johnny

 

This edition of the Yankee Doodle Spies begins a series that profiles key historical figures in the upcoming novel of the acclaimed series, The North Spy. As a minor spoiler, this part of Jeremiah Creed's adventures centers on the British invasion of New York from Canada in 1777. No one is more pivotal to that event than John Burgoyne.

The flamboyant and controversial figure at his best, Burgoyne embodies the classic noble-warrior-literati-celebrity archetype. As distinctive a personality as any archetype can be... His nickname, Gentleman Johnny, reflects how his soldiers see him—and how he perceives himself.

Military Brat or Bastard?

Burgoyne was born on February 24, 1722, in Sutton, to Captain John Burgoyne and his wife Anna Maria, the daughter of a wealthy merchant. Speculation suggests that young John might be a bastard—the illegitimate child of Lord Bingley. Bingley became John’s “godfather” and named him in his will as his heir if his daughters did not produce male heirs.

There was definitely money available to give John a head start in life. So at age 11, Burgoyne began attending Westminster School in London. There, he made some useful friends (always the goal), including Thomas Gage – a future General and the last Royal Governor of Massachusetts. Another close friend was James Smith-Stanley, also known as Lord Strange, who was the son of the wealthy and influential Lord Derby. At 15, Burgoyne joined the British Army by purchasing a commission in the Horse Guards.

John Burgoyne

Since the Guards were based in London and his duties were light, he had plenty of time and opportunities to socialize with high society. He soon earned the nickname, "Gentleman Johnny" for his stylish uniforms and fast lifestyle. However, he quickly accumulated large debts, and it is believed he sold his commission in 1741 to pay them off.

Return to the Colors

The War of the Austrian Succession gave the young dilettante a chance to reinvent himself or, better yet, to rebuild his military career. The British Army was expanding to counter the threat from France, and in April 1745, he was commissioned in the newly formed 1st Royal Dragoons. Unlike most “bought” commissions, as a new regiment, Burgoyne received his commission without any cost. 

Promoted to lieutenant later that year, he served with his regiment at the Battle of Fontenoy, leading troopers in several charges against the French. By 1747, Burgoyne had saved enough money to buy a captaincy—a rank that would give him the platform to get noticed, but the end of the war in 1748 ended any chances of further active service.

Battle of Fontenoy

Cupid’s Arrow

After the war, Burgoyne began courting Charlotte Stanley, the sister of his close friend at Westminster School, Lord Strange. When Charlotte's father, Lord Derby, disapproved of the match, John and Charlotte eloped, causing a scandal and leading his father to cut off her substantial allowance. Since officers on inactive duty received no pay, Burgoyne was forced to sell his commission for 2,500 dollars. 

The young lovers then traveled around Europe, mainly in France and Italy. But it wasn't just about love. During this period, Burgoyne became a dedicated fan of the arts and literature, and this journey helped inspire his creative side. He also began studying treatises on warfare and touring battlefields and fortresses. 

Cupid's Arrow

Return to England and the Army

When his wife gave birth to their only child, Charlotte Elizabeth, they moved back to Britain. Arriving in 1755, his former schoolmate Lord Strange helped the couple reconcile with Lord Derby, who then assisted Burgoyne in purchasing a captaincy in the 11th Dragoons. 

In 1758, Burgoyne joined the prestigious Coldstream Guards, where the ongoing Seven Years' War helped him rise to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In June 1758, he took part in a raid on St. Malo, France, where British forces burned French ships. This was followed by another raid on Cherbourg under then-Captain Richard Howe, who would later lead the Royal Navy in North America during the American War.

Richard Howe

A New Kind of Command

But John Burgoyne quickly developed new ambitions—to command one of the British Army's two new cavalry regiments, the 16th Light Dragoons. This new unit allowed John to apply some of his ideas about military science in practice. Burgoyne was no longer a dilettante. Unlike others who did not get directly involved in managing their regiments, he personally oversaw the formation of his unit and recruited officers from the landed gentry in Northamptonshire. 

He aimed to create a model unit built around his principles of military service: honorable officers, a strong sense of duty, and well-trained, well-equipped men treated with respect. He did not want his men to be the stereotypical dregs of society. To attract high-quality recruits, he worked to provide his men with the best horses, uniforms, and equipment.

Young Cavalry Commander

Unlike British Army traditions, Burgoyne encouraged his officers to get to know the “other ranks.” His concept of warfare emphasized that men should be independent thinkers in combat, not mindless robots like Frederick the Great’s. To facilitate this, he created and published a transformative regimental code of conduct. He also expected his officers to be better educated, urging them to spend time each day reading and learning French, since many of the top military texts were in French, such as the writings of Marechal Maurice de Saxe.

Marechal Maurice de Saxe

Politics, War & Arts

Somehow, Burgoyne found the time and money to get elected to Parliament for Midhurst in 1761. But the next year, he headed to Portugal as a new brigadier general. He gained recognition for capturing Valencia de Alcántara and then defeating the Spanish in the Battle of Vila Velha. During the battle, Burgoyne directed Lieutenant Colonel Charles Lee, future Deputy Commander of the Continental Army, to charge a Spanish artillery battery. 

Charles Lee

Burgoyne returned to Britain at the end of the war. In 1768, he was re-elected to Parliament and appointed governor of Fort William, Scotland. He was outspoken and somewhat “progressive” in Parliament—advocating for military and colonial reform, especially within the East India Company. By this time, he was a major general, but he also dedicated a significant amount of his time to the arts. He had enough free time to write plays and poetry. In 1774, his play The Maid of the Oaks was performed at the Drury Lane Theater.

Drury Lane Theater

Member of the Dream Team

When the American colonial resistance broke out into war in April 1775, Lord George Germain, Minister for the Colonies, sent three of the most promising officers willing to face the Americans (several others refused to serve against fellow Britons). So the dream team of John Burgoyne, William Howe, and Henry Clinton, all highly experienced and renowned veterans, sailed to Boston. With General Thomas Gage in command, there was a surplus of officers, so Burgoyne did not take on field command. However, the debacle at Bunker Hill and the siege gave him plenty of opportunities to learn from others’ mistakes.  

General Thomas Gage

Home and Back and Home

Frustrated, Burgoyne returned to England in November 1775. His wife Charlotte died in February 1776, which deepened his sorrow. Although Burgoyne never remarried, he started a long affair with a married actress, Susan Caulfield, with whom he had four children between 1782 and 1788. The children were raised in Lord Derby's household, and the oldest became Field Marshal Sir John Fox Burgoyne.

General Sir Guy Carleton

His wife gone and eager to prove himself, Burgoyne returned to North America in the spring. This time, arriving at Quebec, where he served under Governor Sir Guy Carleton, who had just stopped the American invasion. Although Carleton managed to push American forces out of Canada, he failed to follow up with a drive on Albany, NY. Burgoyne became critical of Sir Guy’s caution and once again sailed for Britain.

A Brilliant Scheme

Among his other traits, Burgoyne was a smooth talker. Once back in London, he began pressing the Minister for the Colonies, Lord Germain, who was the key figure for defeating the rebellion, about his plan to win the war in 1777. 

The plan involved a three-pronged attack: a thrust south from Lake Champlain aimed at seizing Albany, supported by a detachment led by Lt. Colonel Barry St. Leger approaching from the west through the Mohawk Valley, and a northward advance up the Hudson River from New York led by Sir William Howe to seal the Americans' fate. 

The goal was to cut off New England from the rest of the American Colonies—a classic divide and conquer strategy. Burgoyne’s plan was brilliant but ultimately impractical due to political and geographical challenges.

Lord George Germain

What we have here is Failure to Communicate

Confusion between Germain and Lord Howe, commander-in-chief in North America, would be their undoing. Howe planned to move south toward Philadelphia that year. It is unclear when Germain informed Burgoyne that his support from New York City would be limited. Still, Burgoyne landed in Canada and assembled more than 7,000 men – British regulars, German auxiliaries, as well as some Canadians and Indians.

Burgoyne devised a brilliant but complex plan

Howe (sic) He Lost

I will not delve deeply into this complicated and crucial military event. My future novel, The North Spy, will cover most of the major and some of the minor activities. Burgoyne’s plan was thwarted by several factors. 

Time was not on his side, as the campaign season in the north was short, and he started late and slowly. The terrain was some of the most difficult in North America, with dense forests, numerous bodies of water, and mountains to navigate. Additionally, the Americans rallied most fervently against the incursion, spurred on by atrocities committed by Burgoyne’s Indian allies – both rumored and real. 

Delays & False Assumptions

The initial delay was gathering enough vessels to exploit the excellent waterways—a virtual superhighway leading straight into the heart of the colonies. It was already late June when they arrived on Lake Champlain. Burgoyne’s assumption that widespread Loyalist and Indian support would rally around him was immediately shattered. 

This was a consistent misjudgment in British thinking throughout the war. There was never a large number of Loyal Americans eager to fight, and only a few Native Americans and Loyalists joined his forces. Although Burgoyne captured the northern stronghold, Fort Ticonderoga, by early July, he made a critical mistake by pursuing the Americans. He started diverging from his supply line as his men were lured further away from the waterways. 

Fort Ticonderoga

A Small Win & A Big Loss

A minor victory at Hubbardton on July 7 only gave him false confidence. Burgoyne’s advance south toward Forts Anne and Edward was delayed by the retreating Americans, who blocked roads and trails with trees and destroyed any bridges. Around this time, he learned Howe was sailing to Philadelphia – the crucial push from the south would not happen. Meanwhile, the supply situation worsened as the army lacked enough transport to cross the region's primitive roads.

Battle of Hubbardton

The need for supplies led him to send a force of Germans foraging to the east, where they stumbled into a hornet’s nest of American militia at Bennington on August 16. The New England militia under John Stark defeated the British, inspiring more men to join the cause. 

Many of Burgoyne’s Indian allies began to sense the changing situation and started to drift off to plunder and return home. To make matters worse, Barry St. Leger was turned back at Fort Stanwix. The other part of the triad was gone. Burgoyne had two options: consolidate at Fort Ticonderoga and continue the fight next year – or take a gamble and push farther south.

Battle of Bennington 

The Die is Cast

He took the plunge. Burgoyne decided to abandon his supply lines and attempt a “brute squad” push on Albany in time for winter quarters. He crossed to the west bank of the Hudson on September 13. But just south of Saratoga, a rapidly growing American army, fortified with defense works designed by famed Polish engineer Thadeuz Kozciusko at a place called Bemis Heights, waited. 

The weak Major General Horatio Gates commanded the force, composed mainly of New England and New York militia, but he also had some elite continental troops sent north by George Washington. Gates may have been called "Granny" (his nickname), but the next line of command included some of the war's best leaders, such as Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, Colonel Dan Morgan, Enoch Poor, Ebenezer Learned, and Benjamin Lincoln.

General Horatio Gates

Freeman's Farm

Burgoyne hesitated. His army was weakened and morale was dropping. Although Gates was happy to stay behind his defenses and wait (which wasn't a bad idea), he let Arnold try a strategy. On September 19, Arnold and Morgan attacked Burgoyne's troops at Freeman's Farm. Intense fighting broke out. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the British retreated to regroup.  

Battle of Freeman's Farm

Bemis Heights

With their supply situation critical, many British commanders recommended a retreat. Burgoyne anxiously hoped that a small diversion from NYC launched by former dream team member Henry Clinton would draw some of the Americans south of Albany. But Clinton’s move was too little, too late. Yet unwilling to fall back to Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne tried a last desperate move at Bemis Heights on October 7. 

A strong column under General Simon Fraser was smashed, and Fraser, his best subordinate, was killed by a sniper. So were precious regulars and Germans who would never be replaced. Burgoyne showed personal bravery and was nearly shot several times by American marksmen. When Fraser's column was repulsed, the Americans launched their own attack and punished the British, although they failed to take and hold the British defenses. But Burgoyne had been beaten.

Battle of Bemis Heights

An “Unconventional” Surrender

The British retreated to their camp near Saratoga. Meanwhile, the Americans had cut off his retreat to the north and were daily harassing his lines with sniper fire. Stuck in two pitched battles and now unable to fall back on supply lines or break southward, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17 at Saratoga. 

Yet “Gentleman Johnny” tried to make the best of a bad situation through a technical protocol. He managed to persuade Gates (a former British officer) to allow him to sign a “convention” instead of an unconditional surrender. Also, he and his men were to be returned promptly to Britain. 

Congress later annulled the deal. While British and German officers were sent home on parole, the “other ranks" laid down their arms under the watch of American militia and Continentals, and roughly 5,800 soldiers marched off to captivity in Boston and eventually Charlottesville, Virginia.

Burgoyne Surrenders at Saratoga

Home in Disgrace

Saying Burgoyne returned to Britain in disgrace is an understatement. This was one of the worst defeats in British history – surpassing Malplaquet, Fontenoy, or Carillon. The American militia had routed a British army in the field – convincing France to openly ally with the emerging American nation, later joined by Spain. The impact on world history would be profound.

Burgoyne's demand for a court-martial

was denied

Attacked by the government for his failures, Burgoyne tried to clear his name by blaming Germain for not ordering Howe to support his campaign. He demanded, but did not receive, a court-martial to clear his disgrace. Instead, King George III stripped him of all titles. Once again, Burgoyne was out of the army. But not for long.

Political Winds

Frustrated by the lack of support from Lord North’s administration, whom he had strongly backed, Burgoyne switched his political allegiance from the Tories to the Whigs. Soon, things turned around for Burgoyne. 

Things went south for Lord North -

to Burgoyne's advantage

When Lord North’s cabinet fell in 1782, Burgoyne gained the favor of the Whigs, and his rank of major general was restored along with a colonelcy in the King’s Own Royal Regiment. Burgoyne maneuvered to secure a top military appointment—commander in chief in Ireland—and also became a privy councilor. 

However, he left the government when Lord Rockingham’s administration collapsed a year later. Still, this allowed him time to focus on his literary projects, which had become his main passions besides his mistress.

Burgoyne Reinstated

Acclaimed Playwright

Burgoyne wrote two romantic comedy plays: Maid of the Oaks, completed by 1774, and The Heiress, written in 1786, which is arguably his best work. He also collaborated with Richard Brinsley Sheridan on the production of The Camp in 1778. In 1780, he wrote the libretto for William Jackson’s The Lord of the Manor. Burgoyne translated Michel-Jean Sediane’s Richard Coeur de Lion for a semi-opera at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1788.

Actress Frances Abington 

in Maid of the Oaks

Legacy

Despite his failed strategy and campaign at Saratoga, John Burgoyne is best remembered for his literary achievements among contemporary and post-Revolutionary War Britons. He was most admired for The Heiress, which was a great success and beloved by many both before and after his death. Gentleman John Burgoyne died suddenly at his Mayfair home on June 3, 1792. He was buried at Westminster Abbey.

Burgoyne's Legacy was his plays

The Tailor Spy

Irish Sympathy

The Irish in the American Revolution had their heroes and villains on both sides of the conflict. Although they were celebrated for decades of resisting and fighting their British oppressors, there was little Irish support for the colonials fighting the distant war. The average Irishman was just trying to survive, and many were recruited into British regiments in Ireland. In America itself, Irish immigrants, like the rest of the population, were divided in their loyalties. However, one transplanted son of Erin would play a secret role in helping to free his adopted nation – and perhaps seek some revenge on the British.

Hercules Mulligan at work 

Until recently, only historians and a few enthusiasts of Revolutionary War history knew the name Hercules Mulligan, but it gained worldwide fame through the hit Broadway musical, “Hamilton.” Indeed, Mulligan’s story was connected to that controversial Revolutionary War officer, political operative, and Founding Father. For Hercules Mulligan and his family, in many ways, they provided Alexander Hamilton with the support every new immigrant needs to reach the next level.

Early Days

Hercules Mulligan moved from Coleraine, County Antrim, Ireland, to New York City with his parents, Hugh and Sarah Mulligan, when he was six years old. The year was 1746—long before the French and Indian War and all the political and economic events that would lead to the fight for America. Hercules's father quickly became a successful accountant in New York, and the family prospered in the colonies. Along with Hercules, two brothers also came; notably, his oldest brother Hugh, who became the owner of an import-export business that employed a young man from Nevis named Alexander Hamilton.

King's College

Hercules attended King’s College (now Columbia) and initially became an accountant before switching to the haberdashery business. His first shop was on Water Street, but he later moved to the more fashionable Queen Street in 1773 to attract a wealthier and more influential clientele. That same year, his brother Hugh introduced him to the young prodigy Alexander Hamilton. Hercules took Hamilton under his wing, and Hamilton boarded with Mulligan and his family while attending King’s College.

Secret Politics

While Hamilton’s politics were formed at King’s College, it remains uncertain when and how Mulligan started sympathizing with the rebel cause. Maybe hidden Irish sympathies and resentment toward the harsh Penal Laws in his homeland influenced him. Or was it the events after the French and Indian War—the same events that led more than a third of the king’s loyal subjects toward a different political system? Still, the connection and bond clearly formed during those early days of growing revolutionary fervor.

Stamp Act Protest

At some point along the way, possibly as early as 1765, Hercules helped write an underground tabloid called The Constitutional Courant that opposed the Stamp Act. Mulligan later became a founding member of a radical faction within New York’s Sons of Liberty, organized to defend the colonists’ rights and oppose British taxation. He was also involved, if not a leader, in the mob inspired by the Sons of Liberty that attacked British soldiers in 1770 during what became known as the Battle of Golden Hill. 

Battle of Golden Hill

A Model Citizen

Although he led a secret political life, Hercules publicly remained a member of the establishment. The young Irishman married well—his wife was Elizabeth Sanders, the niece of a Royal Navy admiral and a well-connected member of New York's social elite. The outgoing Irishman leveraged his wife's family connections to grow his business and build relationships with New York’s upper class—most of whom were strong Loyalists. Later, as more British regulars garrisoned New York, he gained a circle of officers as both clients and contacts. 

British-occupied New York

The outgoing haberdasher placed detailed ads in Rivington's Gazette and other leading Tory newspapers—ads aimed at drawing top-tier customers and officers with descriptions of “superfine cloths, gold and silver lace, fancy buttons, and epaulets replete with heavy bouillon.” If you build it, they will come. And come they did. Choosing cloth, accessories, measuring, and fitting all took time—time that could lead to slips of the tongue, nuggets, and the knowing winks of a proud and haughty clientele trying to impress the popular haberdasher. 

Secret Rebel

Mulligan was involved in an incident on August 24, 1775, an attempt against the HMS Asia, which was anchored in New York Harbor. Under the cover of night, a group of New York militiamen, including Mulligan's company known as the "Corsicans," took control of the artillery battery at the southern tip of New York Island (Manhattan). Hercules and his young boarder, Alexander Hamilton, were among them. However, someone had alerted the crew of the HMS Asia, and it fired its own guns on the rebels.  

HMS Asia in New York harbor

Mulligan threw a rope around one of the guns to pull it to safety. As he struggled, Hamilton approached and, despite his small size, dragged the gun away. Hamilton then calmly rejoined the front lines to help move more guns – 20 were taken. Interestingly, one of the shots from the HMS Asia struck the roof of Fraunces Tavern, which later hosted General Washington’s farewell in 1783. With Hercules's support, young Hamilton was promoted to captain and commander of an artillery battery in July the following year – just in time for the British attack on New York.

Artillery would team Hercules with Alexander Hamilton

In 1776, Mulligan was among the Sons of Liberty who tore down a large statue of King George III in Bowling Green. They then melted its lead into musket balls for the rebels. He also joined the New York Committee of Correspondence, a crucial tool for rallying support among the people and keeping the colonies coordinated. An attempt to escape the city failed, and Mulligan stayed in New York after Washington's army was expelled during the summer 1776 New York campaign. By September, New York was occupied by the British, and the situation demanded more than political protests—it required espionage. But to do that effectively, Hercules would need to pretend to be a Loyalist. Since many changed their allegiances during this time, it didn’t attract much suspicion.

King George III statue tumbling down

Tailor Spy

Exactly when our “model citizen” became a spy remains unclear. Fittingly, such matters were not recorded, and secret agents often operated under cover names, code names, or numbers. It is believed Alexander Hamilton suggested him to Washington while serving as aide-de-camp in 1777. However, some sources indicate that the haberdasher did not actually report to Washington until 1779. In any case, the transition was smooth, if not inevitable.

Alexander Hamilton as aide-de-camp to General Washington

At his clothing shop, Mulligan often measured his clients, talking with them and gathering insights through conversation. He was also very attentive to military and political events in the city. Years of secretly waging a political war had sharpened Mulligan's skills, making him an excellent intelligence operative in the occupied city.

The perfect venue for eliciting 

nuggets from powerful customers

As housing for wealthy men became scarce in occupied (and fire-damaged) New York, Hercules opened a few rooms in his home to British officers—an excellent way to avoid suspicion, gather intelligence, build relationships, and develop leads. Some believe Mulligan reported through the Culper Ring—the Long Island-based spy network made famous by the fictional TV show TURN. He might have done so. The main contact for the ring, Robert Townsend, operated his business just down the street from Mulligan’s haberdashery. However, Hercules used other methods too. In fact, Washington’s top intelligence officer and spymaster of the Culper Ring, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, once asked the commander in chief about Mulligan’s status and activities. He was worried that Mulligan's activities might pose a threat to his ring. He would not have made the inquiry if Mulligan was one of his assets.

Major Benjamin Tallmadge

Courier

So how did Mulligan smuggle his intelligence out of the city? One method was through his African American servant, Cato. Cato’s status allowed him to pass through British lines without attracting much attention, as Africans were believed to be loyal to the British (and most were). Some think Samuel Culper used Mulligan’s servant as an alternate reporting channel at least once. Cato made many trips across the lines, but on his last one, he drew enough suspicion to lead his captors, likely local Loyalist militia, to beat him badly. Despite the harsh treatment, Cato did not give up his mission or his boss. In the end, Mulligan used his high contacts to secure Cato's release, although his courier days were over.

Fraternal Affair

Hercules’s older brother, Hugh, was also involved in espionage. His import-export company, Kortwright & Company, conducted business with the British military and many influential Tory merchants in New York. As a shipper, he could visit ships in port, inspect facilities, and track the movement of supplies—offering valuable intelligence on upcoming British operations.

Hugh Mulligan had access to British shipping plans

Saving the Indispensable Man

Little is known about the details of Hercules Mulligan’s reports, but he is credited with providing intelligence that saved General George Washington’s life on at least two occasions. That alone could make him one of the most important figures of the war. 

Cato's message from Hercules saved Washington

Once, a British officer came to Mulligan late at night looking for a coat. Hercules started showing him different coats while joking and questioning his customer, who carelessly revealed he was planning to capture George Washington. Mulligan sent Cato away as soon as the officer left, allowing Washington to escape to safety. Another time, the British found out about Washington’s plan to ride to Rhode Island along the Connecticut shoreline. Luckily, Hugh Mulligan was contracted to supply the British vessels, and he quickly told his brother. Once again, Cato slipped out of the city to warn Washington.

Under Suspicion

The friendly and well-connected Mulligan did come under suspicion at least once during the war. Ironically, this suspicion came from the infamous traitor himself, Benedict Arnold. Arnold was now in New York, holding the rank of Brigadier General in the British Army. One of Arnold’s tasks as commander of the West Point garrison was to help organize resistance against the British in and around New York City. In that role, he suspected that the tailor might be one of General Washington's sources.

Benedict Arnold - British Brigadier General

Washington excelled at “compartmentalizing” operations. Very few of his closest confidants knew who his spies were, and those who did had only the knowledge absolutely necessary.

Hercules under questioning

Arnold had Hercules arrested. Having been interrogated twice before by the British, Mulligan managed to deflect questions and keep his cool. These skills—along with his reputation as a loyal subject and friend to the British—helped him through. Since Arnold lacked any real evidence to back his accusations, our tailor-spy was quickly released.

Under Suspicion (Again)

Hercules was a victim of his own success. By serving as the loyal haberdasher to the British and Tories for nearly eight years, he strengthened his reputation as a collaborator among his fellow New Yorkers—a group known for its cynicism. Patriots and Whigs accused him of being an active Loyalist and a traitor to the cause. After the British departed at the end of 1783, his thriving business and standing in New York society were in serious danger. Many Tories were driven out of town, and their properties were seized. There was no reason to believe that this would not also be Hercules’s fate.

British evacuation of NYC

But the hand of His Excellency, General George Washington, stepped in. After the war, Washington is known to have quietly reached out to many previously unknown individuals and made it clear they were under his special approval. Many of these are believed to have been covert intelligence operatives: secret agents, spies, and couriers. 

True Friend of Liberty

While in New York City, a grateful George Washington visited Mulligan’s haberdashery, had breakfast with the man to whom his life was owed, and was fitted for a new set of clothes, dubbing the secret patriot “a true friend of liberty.” This act protected Mulligan from being labeled a British sympathizer and collaborator. Beaming with pride, Mulligan commissioned a sign that he proudly displayed outside his 23 Queen Street (now 218 Pearl Street) store: “Clothier to Genl. Washington.”

Queen Street post-war

Although Cato’s fate remains unknown, Mulligan fought for democratic ideals in post-war America and co-founded the New York Manumission Society with his longtime friend, Alexander Hamilton. Our tailor-spy died in 1825 at age 80 and is buried next to Alexander Hamilton in Trinity Church.

Trinity Church 1776 pre-NYC fire