Hart of the Rebellion

 The role of women in the American Revolution is often underestimated and underappreciated. Patriot women were present—whether it was to provide moral and physical support, maintain the family farm or business, spy, or even fight. They wove much-needed clothing for the half-naked American soldiers. They supplied food to starving columns passing through towns and farms. During an eight-year struggle, patriotic mothers sent many young men and boys into the ranks. In addition to longing for and fighting for liberty, every American soldier yearned to return home to their family and wife. One could say these women were the heart of the rebellion.

The distaff side was critical to the war effort.

Ann Hart is one such woman. Born Ann Morgan in 1735, the exact date remains unknown. Her precise birthplace isn't certain either, but it's believed to be somewhere in Pennsylvania or North Carolina. Names were tricky back then, and diminutives were common. Ann Hart was no exception, often called "Nancy," a popular nickname for Ann at that time. According to accounts from her contemporaries, Nancy was an imposing figure, over six feet tall, well-built, and red-haired. She was known for her fearlessness; the local Cherokees even called her Wahatche, meaning war woman. 

The Cherokee called her War Woman

By the time of the War for Independence, Ann Morgan had married Benjamin Hart, and the couple settled along the Broad River in Wilkes County, Georgia, where land was fertile, affordable, and plentiful. The year was 1771. Ann was relatively old when they married—thirty-six. Despite that, she gave birth to two daughters and six sons.

The cabin on the Broad River

Nancy, the frontierswoman, couldn't read or write. Still, she was smart, resourceful, and had all the "learnin'" a frontier woman needed. She knew her herbs well and could hunt and prepare any game. Nancy was an excellent shot with a rifle or musket, despite being cross-eyed. No easy feat.

Nancy was a resourceful backcountry woman

As rumor and legend often clash with known facts, I should mention that Nancy is believed to be a relative of the famed explorer Daniel Boone. She was also a cousin to Daniel Morgan, the well-known leader of the Virginia and Pennsylvania riflemen's corps and winner of the Battle of the Cowpens (1781).

Colonel Dan Morgan

After they moved to Georgia, Benjamin joined a Georgian militia regiment. Nancy also became a committed patriot and fought her own battle against Georgia Loyalists.

Benjamin joined the Georgia militia

Nancy was feisty and quick-tempered, according to accounts, and she ran the Hart household with an iron will and an iron fist. So, when Benjamin Hart went off to follow the drum, Nancy was the perfect woman to "hold the fort." Ironically, the drum soon would follow her. 

The British retook the breakaway colony of Georgia in 1779 as the starting point of their "Southern Strategy." British occupation did not always mean British control, especially in the northeast backcountry of Georgia, where locals had been squaring off with the Cherokee for years. The American fight for independence was also a civil war, and unlike the 18th-century wars in Europe, civilians played a role throughout.

Battle of Kettle Creek by Jeff Trexler

According to reports from both first and second sources, Nancy was variously a spy against the British forces in the area, a sniper of the same (she was reputed to be a crack shot), and an occasional combatant. Because of her size, it would have been easy for Nancy to dress in men's clothing and slip into British camps, as is alleged. Pretending to be crazy, she would observe activities and listen to conversations before slipping away and reporting back to local patriot militia leaders. 

Spying on the British

Also reputed to be a sniper, she may have taken long-range shots at Loyalist and British patrols, couriers, and convoys trying to cross the Broad River. The war in the South had turned vicious, and sniping and ambushes, which were frowned upon in 18th-century warfare, became common in the Carolinas and Georgia.

Lady sniper

The British and their supporters probably suspected the strange woman, as they kept a close watch on her activities and often visited the farm to gather food or check on things. In one incident, Nancy was making soap in their cabin when one of her daughters spotted a Loyalist spying on them through a crack in the wall. When she told Nancy, the fiery redhead hurled a ladle of boiling lye through the gap, burning his eyes. As he howled in pain, the angry farm woman rushed out, overwhelmed him, and tied him up. She later turned him over to the local patriot militia.

In another account, Nancy was bringing grain to the local mill when a gang of cowboys (Loyalist raiders) pulled her from her saddle and threw her to the ground. As they rode off with her horse, Nancy brushed off the dirt and carried her heavy grain bag to the mill on foot. 

Cowboys terrorized patriot homesteads

Some accounts claim our southern hellfire happened at the 1779 Battle of Kettle Creek, but that is just speculation. However, her most famous deed seems right on target. A half-dozen Loyalist militiamen showed up at her farm, stopping for food while chasing a rebel. They demanded Nancy prepare a turkey. Since they were armed and ready to punish a patriot wife, she had no choice but to comply. 

But the Loyalists made one big mistake. They neatly stacked their muskets near the door when they entered the cabin to sit at the dinner table. Nancy went to work setting the table and getting the food ready. She slipped some of the muskets through a hole in the cabin wall. Nancy kept the food and drinks coming, and once the men were sufficiently drunk, she grabbed one of the muskets she had left in the cabin and pointed it at her visitors.

Turning muskets on the Loyalists

Glaring at them with a loaded Brown Bess, she ordered them not to move. Refusing to be taken by a woman (and under the influence), one Loyalist made a move on her. That's all it took. Nancy squeezed the trigger, and the hammer slammed into the pan, igniting the powder and sending a lead plug into his chest. 

Another Loyalist lunged at her, but Nancy grabbed another musket and shot him. She had little trouble convincing the others to stay seated at the table until help arrived. When her neighbors and husband showed up, they decided to shoot the prisoners. But Nancy refused, insisting they be hung from a nearby tree.

Nancy demanded the Loyalists be hanged

This story was confirmed in the early 19th century when the remains of about a dozen men were dug up at the farm—four with broken necks. Like many Americans, the post-war era was a time of change and moving. In the late 1790s, Nancy and her husband moved their family to Brunswick, Georgia. 

When Benjamin died there in 1800, Nancy chose to return to her old home on the Broad River. Sadly, their cabin had been washed away by a flood. With the farmhouse gone, she moved in with one of her sons, John Hart, and his family along the Oconee River in Clarke County near Athens, Georgia. 

In 1803, Nancy moved with John’s family to Henderson County, Kentucky, to be close to relatives. She spent the rest of her life there. When she died in 1830 at age 93, Nancy was buried in the family plot.

Nancy's gravestone

Our "Hart of the South" was honored by the state she worked so hard to help free. A highway, city, lake, and county in Georgia are named for her. The Daughters of the American Revolution marked her bravery by placing a replica of her cabin on the Broad River, built with some of the original stones.

Nancy Hart Monument, Hart Co., GA

Fighting Fraser

This is the third profile in a series highlighting a character from book four of the Yankee Doodle Spies series, The North Spy, which is set to be released next year. Since my previous profile featured a Scotsman who fought for America, it only makes sense to follow up with a Scotsman who fought for England. Not just any Scotsman, but a member of the famous Fraser clan of Highland warriors. 

Proud Lineage

Simon Fraser was born into a proud Scottish Highland lineage in Balnain, Scotland, on May 26, 1729. His family and clan were courageous warriors, and many of them fell at the pivotal Battle of Culloden in 1745. Those who survived lost their lands and heritage and were forced into exile.

Culloden smashed the Clans - but not the Highland spirit

Dutch Service

The Scots, like their cousins across the Irish Sea, often fight for the English even when they are not technically fighting against them. This is what young Fraser did, starting with a period in one of the Scottish Brigades hired by the Netherlands—the 4th Brigade, specifically. In the final years of the War of Austrian Succession, young Simon fought in the 1747 siege of Bergen-op-Zoom. The attacking French forces overwhelmed the defenses and flooded into the town, where fierce fighting took place. During the attack and counterattack, Fraser was wounded. 

Seige of Bergen-Op-Zoom

Royal American

With the end of the war, the Dutch Brigade was reduced to a single battalion, prompting Fraser to look for opportunities elsewhere. The start of the Seven Years' War provided a prime chance for an eager and now experienced young Highlander. In 1756, Fraser joined the British Army’s 62nd Royal American Regiment of Foot. Renumbered as the 60th the following year, it later became known as The King’s Royal Rifle Corps.

Back to the Clan

Fraser did not stay with the 60th for long. In January 1757, he accepted a commission in a newly formed regiment of highlanders, the 63rd Highlander Regiment of Foot. The regiment was led by Simon’s cousin, Lord Lovat, who was also named Simon Fraser. The unit was called Fraser’s Regiment, and its ranks mostly consisted of Frasers. This was probably the main reason for joining—the chance to fight alongside and for kin.

Fighting French & Indians

Fraser traveled to America to fight the French, taking part in the siege of Louisbourg, which, when captured, gave Britain control of the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. He served under British General James Wolfe during the 1759 attack on Quebec, the decisive battle of the war in America. The 78th Regiment climbed the Heights of Abraham with Wolfe, and Lieutenant Fraser was wounded in the fierce fighting, while Wolfe was mortally wounded in this great victory. 

Scaling the Heights of Abraham

Fraser’s time with the 60th and his service in America with the 78th opened his eyes to a different style of fighting in the wooded wilderness—the need for disciplined troops who could fight outside of massed formations and rely on terrain and marksmanship to take down enemies like the Indian allies of the French. After Quebec, Fraser’s unit had garrison duty in the city and spent some time in New York, but the French and Indian war was nearing its end.

Fraser's Highlanders mingle with Iroquois Braves

Seven Year Itch

By 1760, Fraser was back in Europe—though the Seven Years' War had not yet ended. This led to another transfer—this time to the 24th Regiment of Foot, which was sent to Germany to serve in Lord Granby’s Corps. Over the next two years, the 24th fought in more than half a dozen sieges and major battles against the French. He was recognized for heroism at the Battle of Wezen in November 1761. Fraser led a hand-picked company of fifty men in an attack that drove off about 400 French troops. He was promoted to major during this time, learning a lesson about what specially trained men could accomplish against greater odds.

British infantry in the Seven Years' War

Post-Treaty of Paris

After the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763, Fraser continued his military service in Germany, Ireland, and Gibraltar. From 1763 to 1769, Simon Fraser and the 24th Regiment were stationed in Gibraltar. He performed well and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel of the 24th in 1768. Fraser trained the regiment in specialized light infantry tactics, making it one of the first British regiments to focus on this approach.

Gibraltar

It was also in Gibraltar that he met Margarita Hendrika Beck Grant, the widow of Major Alexander Grant, a fellow Scot. After exchanging letters for some time, they married. Soon afterward, they moved to Ireland when the 24th was transferred there. The couple had no children.

Brigadier General Simon Fraser

War Clouds in America

Fraser had watched as the North American colonies went into rebellion and war. The rebels expelled a British Army from Boston in 1775 and invaded Canada. More troops were needed to put down the rebellion. More importantly, Britain needed experienced officers. So, as commander of a brigade of five battalions, Fraser set sail from Ireland and returned to North America in April 1776. He was sent to support the beleaguered Governor-General Guy Carleton, who was surrounded in Quebec by American rebels. Carleton had held off the invading army against all odds during a brutal winter campaign. Fraser’s arrival helped him go on the offensive.

Governor-General Guy Carleton

In the Vanguard

Fraser wasted no time; he defeated American General William Thompson’s division at Trois Rivieres in June. Named brevet Brigadier General by Carleton, Fraser took command of the Advance Guard of the British counterattack into New York’s Champlain Valley. Although Carleton’s campaign was successful, the stubborn American defense, led by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, disrupted his schedule by engaging him at Valcour Island. The battle was won, but winter was approaching.

Valcour Island

An Unsavory Pause

Rather than risk a final descent into Albany as winter approached, Carleton retreated to the northernmost part of Lake Champlain, planning to move again the following year. Fraser, like many other officers, was unhappy with this cautious strategy, but they had to wait for a new season—and a new commander. During the winter quarters, Fraser trained his troops in light infantry tactics and prepared them for operations in the rugged American wilderness.

The upper end of Lake Champlain

New Boss, New Plan

In the spring of 1777, Major General John Burgoyne returned from London with 8,000 British and German troops and a new invasion plan. This plan involved three separate pushes from the west, north, and south, all aimed to meet at Albany. It also specified that Burgoyne, not Carleton, would command the main attack from Canada.

General John Burgoyne

Advance Guard Again

Brigadier General Fraser took command of Burgoyne’s advance guard, consisting of about 1,200 troops now trained as light infantry. The army launched from the mouth of the Richelieu River into Lake Champlain in an array of bateaux and canoes. Moving swiftly, Fraser’s forces protected the advance toward Fort Ticonderoga and captured it during a surprise attack as the American defenders retreated into the night. Fraser himself led the troops and raised a British flag.

Ticonderoga

A Hot Pursuit

Fraser then sent his advance guard in hot pursuit as the Americans chose to retreat through the dense forests to the south and east instead of taking the waterways that led south. The British vanguard continued on their trail and eventually cornered the American rear guard under Colonel Seth Warner, also an experienced fighter in the woods, near Hubbardton. In a back-and-forth struggle, the larger American force actually started to gain the upper hand, but a column of Germans under General von Riedesel helped turn the tide of battle.

The American militia acquitted itself well against

 the professionals at Hubbardton

Supply Chain Blues

The rest of Burgoyne’s army was now moving south again, with Fraser’s brigade leading the way. Albany was within reach with just one final push. However, Burgoyne faced a supply chain problem because he was far from his base, and shortages began to occur. Additionally, Fraser’s scouts, including some Canadians and Iroquois, reported a large concentration of Americans just north of Albany, under the command of a former British officer, General Horatio Gates.

Horatio Gates

Burgoyne began to lose his nerve. The other two attacks failed, and he was on his own. Instead of launching a full-scale assault, he ordered a reconnaissance in force with Fraser leading the right wing through thick woods and rugged terrain. 

Freeman's Farm

Clash of Titans

There, Fraser’s elite force clashed head-on with their American counterparts, the Virginia and Pennsylvania riflemen led by Colonel Daniel Morgan. Morgan’s riflemen wielded long rifles with grooved barrels that allowed for accurate fire over distances of more than one hundred yards. Fraser's brigade consisted of the best marksmen in the British Army. The lead flew as the top soldiers from each side exchanged fire, and ultimately, Morgan’s force was pushed back, creating an opportunity to exploit the situation and maneuver around the American flank.

Dan Morgan

 A Pause and a Probe

But Burgoyne did not approve and instead withdrew his army back to camp to assess the supply situation. That situation only worsened, and as autumn advanced, Burgoyne found himself in a desperate predicament. This time, he launched a probing attack. The idea was to gauge the enemy and exploit any weaknesses. He initiated his probe on October 7 in what would become the Battle of Bemis Heights.

Bemis Heights

Frenzied Fighting

Once again, Fraser found himself in the thick of things with his brigade. However, the Americans showed no signs of backing down and launched fierce counterattacks all along the front, led by General Benedict Arnold. The British forces held their ground and, under the relentless pressure of American volleys and bayonet charges, withdrew. Time and again, Fraser rallied units and formed the line. Mounted, and despite the sheets of lead whistling all around, he waved his saber. 

Fraser struck on the third shot

In the Crosshairs

From somewhere far off, an American rifleman cocked his hammer and gazed down the long barrel of his rifle, leveling it on a red-coated figure on horseback. Legend has it that the sniper was Private Tim Murphy, who allegedly said, “That is a gallant officer, but he must die.” He squeezed the trigger; the hammer cracked down, igniting the firing pan and launching a ball that just missed Fraser. A second shot struck his saddle, but Fraser ignored the fire. Ignoring pleas from his aides, he continued until a third shot hit home with a ball into his belly – a mortal wound.

American Riflemen moving into firing positions

A Blow to an Army

The fall of Fraser shocked the entire British Army—especially Burgoyne, who quickly ordered his battered forces back to their camp north near Saratoga.

Baroness Fredericka von Riedesel

Desperate hands dragged the dying general to the rear, where von Riedesel's wife, Baroness Fredericka, who had traveled with her husband on the wilderness campaign, cared for him.

Fraser mourned on the battlefield

The brave highlander died the next day and was buried at the Great Redoubt in a solemn ceremony held under the guns and muskets of the surrounding rebel army. A stray round from the American artillery nearly disrupted the event. Upon learning of it, Horatio Gates ordered a gun salute instead. Burgoyne would soon surrender his army, ending the campaign and influencing the indecisive King of France to favor the Americans.

The fighting Scot's exact resting place 

at the Great Redoubt is unknown

Death's Legacy

Fraser’s life of action and service ended in a way any warrior would have chosen. But Britain lost more than a warrior; it lost one of its best generals, a man who truly understood the kind of fighting and the kind of fighting man required to win the war. Had he not fallen on that October day, he might have risen as the leader capable of subduing the colonies for the Crown, just as he once subdued his own Highland clans. Yet, ironically, the gallant Scot who fought for England, Holland, and German allies never fought for Scotland and is most remembered in America.

Frustrated Founder

Many leaders in the Continental Army had prior experience in the British Army, and some of them became quite controversial. Foremost among these was Charles Lee (General Washington’s second-in-command), who allowed himself to be captured by the British and was relieved after the Battle of Monmouth. (see blog post A General Disaster). Another was General Horatio Gates, who won at Saratoga but fell into disgrace at the Battle of Camden. Our profiles of Richard Montgomery (see blog post, First to Fall) and Hugh Mercer (see blog post, Surgeon General from Scotland) show that these men had no shortage of courage under fire – giving the last full measure. 

General Charles Lee - one of many former

 British officers to serve in the Continental Army

But this edition highlights a man whose legacy of service to his new nation is complex and, in some ways, tragic. Arthur St. Clair was a man of intelligence and industry whose inconsistent military talents hide a career of dedication, patriotism, and significant frustration.

From Medicine to Military

Born in Truro, Scotland, in 1736 to a fairly well-off family, St. Clair attended the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1757, he changed his career by purchasing a commission as an ensign in the 60th Foot (Royal American Regiment) and traveled to America that same year to fight in the French and Indian War.

Private - 60th Regiment of Foot

French and Indian War

Ensign St. Clair served under the renowned General Jeffrey Amherst, assisting in the capture of the massive French fortress at Louisburg in July 1758. The following spring, he was promoted to lieutenant and served under General James Wolfe at Quebec and during the fighting on the Plains of Abraham, the decisive battle of the war. Lieutenant St. Clair was mentioned in the dispatches for his heroism when he seized the regimental colors from a fallen soldier and carried them to victory. No amateur when it comes to courage.

Fall of Louisburg

Husband, Settler & Public Servant

His regiment was later based in Boston, where Cupid’s arrow struck deeply. His lovesick war hero married Phoebe Bayard (from the prominent Bowdoin family) in May 1760. Now settled into marriage with a well-known family, the life of a British officer became less promising. So he resigned his commission in 1762 and moved to Pennsylvania to seek his fortune as a surveyor. Two years later, he made his home permanently in Ligonier Valley on the colony’s western frontier, where land was inexpensive and easy to acquire. He eventually became the largest landowner and one of the most influential men in the colony’s western region. 

18th Century Pennsylvania

Like many prominent men of his era, he began to build an impressive record of public service, which included roles such as surveyor of Cumberland County, justice of the court of quarter sessions and of common pleas, member of the proprietary council, recorder, clerk of the orphans’ court, and chief clerk of Bedford County courts. At that time, Bedford County covered what would later become Fayette, Westmoreland, Washington, Greene, and parts of Beaver, Allegheny, Indiana, and Armstrong counties. For quite a while, he was essentially the law in a land that was almost the wild west, filled with hunters, Indian traders, backcountry settlers, transients, and all kinds of questionable characters. He was especially recognized for dealing fairly with the local Indians.

Political Winds

St. Clair was caught in the territorial disputes between Pennsylvania and Virginia, which claimed a large part of the western colony. When Virginian John Connolly seized the area near today’s Pittsburgh for Virginia and tried to undermine Pennsylvania’s settlers, St. Clair had him arrested. Virginia’s governor had Pennsylvanians detained and complained to Governor Penn about St. Clair. The governor supported his magistrate, but the border dispute between the two colonies was not resolved until Congress intervened years later.

Militia Leader

Like many prominent colonial leaders, Arthur St. Clair played a key role in the local militia. In January 1776, he was appointed colonel of a regiment, which he raised over the winter and then force-marched north to join the invasion of Canada, reaching Quebec on April 11. However, the campaign was already lost with Montgomery's defeat and death while storming Quebec, along with the American loss at Chambly. All he could do was assist General John Sullivan’s retreat.

The campaign in Canada was lost by the time

St. Clair arrived at Quebec

Cool Under Pressure

But his knowledge of the area from the last war and his military experience helped save a large part of the routed army. St. Clair was himself injured and barely made it back after being cut off by advancing British forces.

Major General Arthur St. Clair

 He was promoted to Brigadier General in August in recognition of his service and talents, and he was ordered to join General George Washington’s army in New Jersey, where he took command of a couple of militia regiments. The campaign also turned into a rout, and Washington’s forces disbanded as they retreated from Brunswick to make a narrow escape across the Delaware River.

Trusted Counsel

St. Clair went to work recruiting men for the beleaguered Continental Army and was rewarded with a brigade command, which he led capably during the critical American victories at Trenton, Assenpink Creek, and Princeton in the rapid counterattack of December 1776 – January 1777. Some accounts say that St. Clair devised the brilliant night maneuver from the Assenpink to cut off the British and threaten Princeton. Most other commanders recommended retreat, but Washington followed St. Clair’s advice, leading to the American victory at Princeton and possibly saving the rebellion from collapse. This explains Washington’s continued support for St. Clair during later controversies.

Assenpink Creek

Return to the North

By the spring of 1777, tensions were again escalating in the northern colonies. A large force led by General John Burgoyne (see blog post, Gentleman Johnny) was gathering north of Lake Champlain. The Continental Congress President John Hancock ordered the newly appointed Major General Arthur St. Clair to take charge of the strategically vital but thinly manned fortress – Fort Ticonderoga. However, when St. Clair arrived in early June, he found the fort in poor condition. Located on the southern shore of Lake Champlain, the fort was the first target in a British invasion plan aimed at capturing Albany and dividing the colonies. Everyone hoped the fort would act as a barrier to stop Burgoyne’s advancing troops. 

General John Burgoyne

Fort of Futility

But as the Americans should have learned from the debacle at Fort Washington the previous year, a powerful fort that is undermanned becomes a liability, not an asset. Ticonderoga was undermanned, with men who were ill-fed and ill-equipped. Powder and provisions of all kinds were scarce. There were barely 2,500 men in a fort that needed 10,000 for a proper garrison. Burgoyne had over 8,000 British and German troops along with plenty of artillery and supplies.

Fort Ticonderoga

Outflanked and Outgunned

The British soon moved into the area and quickly took control of Mount Defiance, where they installed a battery that commanded Ticonderoga. A coordinated attack would soon break through the defenses and easily damage the defenders. During a war council, St. Clair decided to evacuate the post and save the army for another day. It was a wise but debated decision.

British guns on Mount Defiance would dominate the area

around Ticonderoga

Flight by Night

The night retreat in the face of an overwhelming enemy was a huge risk. St. Clair managed it, but not without a major mistake when French-born General Fermoy’s unexplained fire at his quarters warned the British. With redcoats and Germans close behind, the beleaguered Americans ran through the woods; a water route was avoided except for the wounded. St. Clair aimed not only to save his army but also to draw the British away from their path of advance, slow them down, and extend their supply lines. 

Retreat, Divide and Conquer?

He split his forces, and the rear guard delayed the British pursuers, who were chasing them like hounds after a rabbit. St. Clair hoped to divide the British and herding them into the deep northern woods rather than letting them sail effortlessly down Lake George. They were barely ahead of the enemy. General Simon Fraser’s advance guard – the elite of the British army – collided with some of St. Clair’s forces at Hubbardton. It was a hard-fought victory for Fraser. Another British force – Germans, in fact – was defeated when they tried to ease a worsening supply situation by taking livestock at Bennington in today's Vermont.

Hubbardton - a defeat, but also a diversion

Ignominy

Despite the wisdom of St. Clair’s successful retreat, which diverted and slowed the British, split their army, extended their supply lines, and prevented a valuable field force from being captured, he was condemned from all sides, especially by those who favored General Horatio Gates over Washington as commander in chief. Although the 2,500 men he managed to save formed the core of Gates's forces at Saratoga, which ultimately defeated the British, St. Clair was stripped of all command. 

General Horatio Gates

Yet General Washington continued to support him and recalled him to the main army, where he remained at the commander-in-chief’s side and served as an aide at the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777. At St. Clair's request, a court-martial was held in 1778. St. Clair was acquitted, “with the highest honor, of the charges against him.” But any hope of battlefield command was lost.

Selfless Service 

He continued serving, however, and was with Washington when General Cornwallis’s army surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781. The war in the south was still ongoing, and St. Clair was assigned to lead a column of troops into the Carolinas to support General Nathanael Greene, who was working to clear out British garrisons from Ninety-Six to Charleston and Savannah. St. Clair's Pennsylvania reputation proved valuable when a serious mutiny broke out among the Pennsylvania Line regiments in 1783. He was called upon to appeal to his fellow Pennsylvanians, and he helped to calm the mutineers, who had planned an armed march on Congress.

Yorktown Surrender

Post-War Politics

St. Clair returned to Pennsylvania and began a distinguished career in political service to the new nation. He joined the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783. Later, St. Clair was elected as a delegate to the Confederation Congress. During his term from November 1785 through November 1787, he helped establish the new national government. It was a time of firsts and challenges. In February 1787, the members met and elected St. Clair as President of the Confederation Congress (essentially the leader of the federal government). He faced many responsibilities during his one-year term.

Confederation Congress

 Shays's Rebellion broke out in 1787 over tax conflicts. Discontented farmers, mainly war veterans, protested against their state government. Despite the turmoil caused by the political crisis surrounding Shays's rebellion, Congress successfully passed a significant law during that time – the Northwest Ordinance. This established the blueprint for western expansion, governance, and admitting new territories into the United States. Most notably, during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was working on drafting a new United States Constitution, which would replace the old Confederation Congress with a stronger federal government consisting of three branches.

Shays's Rebellion

Frontier Governor

With the creation of the new Northwest Territory, Congress appointed Arthur St. Clair as its first governor. The Northwest Territory included what are now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Establishing his seat of government in the settlement he named “Cincinnati,” he began his work. His accomplishments were significant in helping settle and develop the land, as well as preparing it for eventual incorporation into the United States. As a former magistrate, he established the territory's first set of laws, known as Maxwell’s Code. He also invested personal funds to help clear land for settlement. 

Northwest Indian War

St. Clair’s western accomplishments were controversial. He began building forts to protect settlers and defend against tribes. He negotiated the Treaty of Fort Harmar – forcing the Indians off their tribal land. Instead of settling Indian claims, the treaty led to outright conflict. 

Fort Harmar

The tribes grabbed their tomahawks and went on the warpath, causing panic among western settlers. Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket led the coalition, aided by former British Loyalists Alexander McKee and Simon Girty. The tribes defeated a 1,500-strong militia led by General Josiah Harmar in October 1790.

Chief Blue Jacket

The following spring, St. Clair was promoted to major general of the U.S. Army and personally led the response. Once again in uniform, he took to the field in October 1791 with two Regular Army regiments and militia – a column of 1,400 men marching deep into the Ohio wilderness to the headwaters of the Wabash River. Meanwhile, thousands of Miami, Delaware, and Shawnee warriors had gathered in the dense forests, awaiting a chance to strike at the hated enemy. 

 St. Clair was appointed major general a second time

Massacre

The trap was sprung on November 4th — the warriors unleashing fierce sheets of lead into the Americans, who fell in large numbers. With less than half of his force remaining, St. Clair led a desperate bayonet charge to hold off the warriors closing in for the final blow. He managed to rescue the survivors but at the cost of over 600 killed and 300 wounded. The Battle of the Wabash stands as the worst disaster in what would become a long series of conflicts between the advancing Americans and the Indian tribes.

St Clair's defeat at the Wabash

More Ignominy

St. Clair was widely condemned by everyone, including his long-time ally, President Washington, who initiated an investigation into the causes of the disaster— the first investigation by the executive branch under the new United States Constitution. The inquiry cleared St. Clair of any wrongdoing, but he was forced to resign from the army. 

President Washington launched an inquiry

Politics & Policy

St. Clair managed to remain governor of the Ohio Territory, a testament to a combination of political factors (he was a strong Federalist in a largely Democratic-Republican west) and his recognized administrative skills. The republic had descended into intense partisan politics, and the frontier was no exception. St. Clair aimed to create two Federalist-leaning states from the Ohio Territory, hoping to increase Federalist influence in Congress. He made significant personal investments in the region, but the federal government, always short on cash, failed to reimburse him.

Northwest Territory - St. Clair's Legacy

The Democratic-Republicans in Ohio opposed him and accused him of partisanship, duplicity, and arrogance. He did not help his case—resisting the direction from the new capital in Washington and its now Democratic-Republican administration. An 1802 statement rejecting Congress’s control over the territory led to President Thomas Jefferson removing St. Clair from the office he had held for more than a decade. 

President Thomas Jefferson removed St. Clair

Home to Ligonier

Losing his western investments and running out of funds, St. Clair moved to western Pennsylvania. He and his wife lived with their daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family in a cabin located between Ligonier and Greensburg. Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818. He was 81 years old. His wife Phoebe died shortly afterward and is buried beside him under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park, downtown Greensburg. 

St. Clair's final home 

Frustrated Founder

Despite being frustrated by two controversial military defeats, St. Clair was a good officer, a capable general, and most importantly, an adept military thinker. Why else would Washington keep him at his side after Fort Ticonderoga? He was a skilled administrator, and his efforts helped not just win a nation but build one, both at the seat of government and on its frontier. This makes the little-known medical student from Scotland one of our nation's founders in every sense of the word. 

St. Clair's Grave