General Disaster

This edition of the Yankee Doodle Spies shifts focus from the Loyalists to an Englishman. However, this Englishman, a professional officer by training, came to America after his British military career stalled. Settling in Winchester, Virginia, in 1773, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Lee adopted Whig and patriot politics, and thanks to his experience in the regular army, was appointed second in command to General George Washington. It is more than an understatement to say Lee was controversial, odd, ambitious, and morally uncertain. But I digress. Instead of detailing his entire career – which is too rich to fit into one post — I thought we’d examine his “evening parade.”

Early Career at a Glance

Lee was a well-educated son of a (not so modern) major general. After attending school in Switzerland, he entered the Royal Army as an ensign in 1747. Like others of his generation of soldiers and sailors, he saw a lot of action, as Britain had no shortage of wars in the mid-eighteenth century.

Major General Charles Lee

His exploits in the Seven Years War, actually the French and Indian War, took him from Braddock’s defeat on the Monongahela to the final victory on the Plains of Abraham. He ended the war as a major and returned to Europe, where he served briefly as a lieutenant colonel in the Portuguese Army and later in the Polish service. In the latter, he managed to lose two fingers in a duel in which his opponent died. Lee was no snowflake.

Lee was a Seven-Year War
and French and Indian War Veteran

With his career in the Royal Army at its lowest point, he moved to North America to pursue farming and politics. When the American Revolution erupted, he was among those considered to lead the new American army. He lost to George Washington but was awarded the second-in-command position as a consolation. Major General Lee displayed talent but was also cantankerous and involved in many intrigues along with military engagements. He was known as a seducer of women but was quirky, disheveled, and always accompanied by his pack of dogs. Captured under mysterious circumstances as America’s fortunes declined in late 1776, many suspected Lee of aiding his British captors, who used him for their advantage.

Lee was captured at Basking Ridge, NJ
while away from his army

Renewal and Redemption

Lee was paroled as part of a prisoner exchange in April 1778, being swapped for British General Richard Prescott. Despite suspicions of duplicity and back-stabbing by Lee, George Washington welcomed him home to the Continental Army like a prodigal son. Circumstances placed the quirky but still considered a professional officer in a position to make up for any past quirks, obfuscations, and manipulations. The Continental Army emerged from Valley Forge as a revitalized force, professionally trained and equipped. British actions would give Charles Lee a chance to use that new force and prove once and for all that he was the best officer in the army, a view long held by Lee and his supporters.

The Continental Army emerged from Valley Forge
as well-trained professionals

General Clinton’s Gift

By spring 1778, the British had decided to abandon the American capital and concentrate their forces in the major stronghold of New York. This would allow London to redirect land and naval forces to the new active theater in the West Indies. Clinton sent part of his forces north by sea, but a significant force would have to march north across the hot fields of the Jerseys before they could be transported to New York. Washington’s spies warned him of this, and he positioned the Continental Army to take advantage of Clinton’s predicament. A slow-moving land force, reduced in numbers, became an easy target for the commander in chief. Clinton had given the long-suffering Continentals a gift.

Sir Henry Clinton

Councils of War

During a series of war councils, Washington sought to decide the best course of action. Should they risk an all-out attack? Shadow the British and harass their movements? Or try to block them and force a British assault?

The final meeting took place on June 24. Many wanted to take decisive action against the British, but the generals were divided on how to proceed. Marquis de Lafayette considered it a matter of honor to strike at the enemy. Nathanael Greene advocated for a partial effort as a way to boost morale. The aggressive “Mad” Anthony Wayne preferred an all-out fight. However, Lee clarified that his only goal was to observe the British army as it retreated.

Mad Anthony Wayne

The quirky, self-important Lee offered surprisingly cautious advice and had a good understanding of the risks involved. Lee thought an all-out attack on the British was absurd and believed that a defeat for the Americans would be disastrous. To be fair, he probably didn’t realize that this army was unlike any previous command—the American army of the past. Washington decided to keep harassing the British. His combative, young aide Alexander Hamilton dryly remarked that the results of this meeting "would have done honor to the most honorable body of midwives and to them only."

To Lead or Not to Lead

Events gave Washington pause. The New Jersey militia under General Philemon Dickinson (see the Yankee Doodle Spies post on the Militia General) slowed and harassed the British column, which was already being troubled by New Jersey militia blocking roads and launching nuisance attacks.

Major General Philemon Dickinson

Seeking to capitalize on this, Washington dispatched an advance guard of six hundred riflemen under famed Colonel Dan Morgan, then added a second detachment of 1,440 selected Continentals. He followed with a third wave of a thousand chosen men led by Wayne. Washington asked his recently returned second in command, Charles Lee, to lead this strike force, but Lee declined. Did he feel that taking on the British in this manner was too risky or that the command was beneath him?

Dan Morgan

Lafayette, I am Here

So Washington turned to one of his favorites – the Marquis de Lafayette, the young French aristocrat who accepted the command. But Lee then had second thoughts and demanded command of the force. Washington felt he had no choice but to agree. However, he increased the force by another six hundred men as a reason for replacing Lafayette. Now, a force of about 5,000 was closing in on the British rear.

Marquis de Lafayette

A final war council on June 27 offered little clarity on how severely to attack the British, who were nearing Monmouth Court House on their way to a Sandy Hook rendezvous with the fleet. Lee and the strike force slowly positioned themselves near the British rear guard. Several messages from Washington did not provide clear guidance on what actions to take. Therefore, Lee decided to proceed with a watchful waiting approach.

His placement of forces was uneven, making mutual support difficult. On June 28th, he advanced carefully with Anthony Wayne's brigade leading. The day was hot and humid, soaking coats in both red and blue. When the initial contact on June 28th caught the British rear guard off guard, Anthony Wayne pressed for a more aggressive stance, as was his style. (See the Yankee Doodle Spies post on The Mad Man) But without clear orders, Lee hesitated. The chance to outflank the British rearguard was lost.

Baptism by Fire

But upon learning of the contact, General Clinton, meanwhile, decided to give the rebels one last lesson. He reinforced his rearguard and sent them south after their pursuers. Lee’s situational awareness was confused. He received conflicting reports on British strength and activities. But he decided to fix the British rearguard in front of him — if he could find it. He sent forward Wayne’s force, but Wayne circled around the British left to attempt an ambush. Wayne was surprised by a detachment of dragoons, and firing erupted. Lee had to change plans. He pushed Lafayette forward and maneuvered to take advantage of Wayne’s situation.

Old Monmouth Courthouse 

Run Away, Run Away Run 

Then Clinton unexpectedly attacked the rebels and sent the grenadiers against Lee’s right. Chaos broke out. A series of firefights erupted. Volleys of lead shot across the steamy farm fields. Guns began spewing heavy iron balls across meadows and fields. Lee’s situational awareness quickly worsened. He didn't know what was facing him, and he didn't have his forces well controlled. Without clear orders from Lee, his brigades moved on their own in response to the situation as they understood it. Normally, this isn’t entirely bad. Initiative in battle is a good thing. But this situation was heading toward disaster because the formations weren’t working together—they were acting independently.

Lee's units operated independently against
the British

Fearing the worst—a potential engagement he wanted to avoid—Lee retreated three times. His aim was to extract his forces from a dire situation and steer clear of the grasp of the British regulars with the army's most elite infantry and cavalry. Puzzled by the withdrawals, soldiers and commanders started to lose morale. Was something going wrong that they did not understand? The fog of battle made the retreat look and feel like a rout. These were perhaps understandable actions given the circumstances he faced. But he made one crucial mistake. He did not keep the commander in chief informed.

You May Leave the Army

In the rear, Washington was advancing with his staff through a stand of woods. Suddenly he saw a civilian and a fifer coming down the road. He disbelieved them when told the army was in retreat. Then stragglers bereft of gear and weapons staggered past. Soon, an entire unit was seen running away from the front. Washington, now enraged, rallied the men and pushed forward. Soon, he spotted an officer on horseback ostensibly fleeing the battle. It turned out to be Charles Lee.

Washington confronts Lee

“What is all this?” Washington demanded. Lee hesitated at first. Then Lee blurted out a series of incoherent defensive statements about intelligence and the power of the British. That did not go over well. Washington insisted they were facing only a strong covering party of the enemy. Lee replied that the British had greater numbers than previously thought and did not believe it was proper to risk the army. Washington erupted into a tirade unlike anything anyone had seen before, questioning Lee’s bravery. Washington ended the exchange when he saw some units retreating and hurried over to rally them. Lee seemed to have remained in stunned silence for a few minutes.

Washington managed to rally the army

Washington meanwhile rallied the retreating troops, regrouped his forces, and fought Clinton’s regulars to a standstill. The fighting went back and forth as neither side would concede. Despite the burning summer heat, both sides unleashed musket volleys and thunderous artillery. The savage day's fighting ebbed with the dark of night, and both armies collapsed where they fought and slept on their arms. But when the Americans stood at dawn, they found the entire British had beat feet to Sandy Hook and the safety of the fleet. Although a sort of moral victory, Washington was vexed at losing a chance to crush the enemy.

The Americans stood their own against British assaults

The End of the Affair

By the 29th, Washington revisited the issue of Lee and his behavior. In a series of letters, Lee became petulant and unremorseful. When Washington questioned his reason for the withdrawal, the two men exchanged words. Demanding a hearing, Lee was charged with insubordination. A court-martial was convened over several weeks. Lee was found guilty of dereliction and cowardice. His punishment: removal from command in the army for one year. Unsatisfied with the outcome, Lee became involved in several affairs of honor and frequently criticized the Continental Congress for enforcing the sentence. These actions resulted in his permanent dismissal from the Continental Army in January 1780.

Lee once advised that he liked his
dogs better than people

Retrospective

Charles Lee’s quirky personality, arrogance, and narcissism made him very controversial. Yet, for most of the war, he was admired by many in the army and Congress for his experience and professionalism. He has a mixed record, though, and there were times when his loyalty was suspect. But his actions at Monmouth were the result of his awe of the British professionals, fear of getting decisively engaged, and confusion in the fog of battle. I also suspect he was undermined by a lack of respect for Washington, poor chemistry with his subordinate commanders, and lack of confidence in the American soldiers under him. Of these, the third was his greatest failure.

Coryell's Ferry

Before the Brooklyn Bridge, the Lincoln Tunnel, or the Wilson Bridge, there was the ferry. And not just the Staten Island Ferry...And yes, there were tolls...

A Hard Land to Travel

America during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies was a tough land to travel through. Most of America was still heavily forested and inland, with rugged to mountainous terrain making travel dangerous and often life-threatening. By the mid-1700s, however, the coastal and tidewater regions were relatively developed. Here, a network of mostly poor roads crisscrossed these areas, connected by fords, bridges, and ferries crossing waterways. 

Early American bridge building was limited to short spans, and fords only allowed crossing shallow waters. Numerous ferries were established along rivers and tidal areas, carrying carts, wagons, livestock, and travelers on foot, horseback, or in carriages. 

However, ferries during the Yankee Doodle Spies era were often unreliable and sometimes dangerous. With no weather forecasting, they were vulnerable to sudden storms, weather changes, and shifting tides that could cause accidents, property damage, and injuries to passengers or animals. Many ferries kept irregular schedules, with some only operating part-time, making the service unreliable and often a poor source of income. 

Consequently, many ferry operators had second jobs, such as farming, running a tavern, or owning a store. Schedules were frequently nonexistent, leaving weary travelers at the mercy of the ferryman's other commitments, which could lead to delays and long waits.

Dutch settlers used ferries to traverse the Hudson
and cross to Long Island

But they were vital to the transportation system of that era. Ferries linked America's growing tidal cities to their surroundings, utilizing an expanding network of toll roads, pikes, and longer-range boats connected to them, enabling efficient if sometimes unpredictable transit from the mid-Atlantic to distant locations like New York and Baltimore. 

North of Philadelphia, major ferry operations connected Mercer County, New Jersey, and Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Between 1675 and the start of the American Revolution, Trenton established the Lower, Middle, and Upper Ferry crossings over the Delaware River. The Middle Ferry was linked with a stagecoach line to New Brunswick and provided downriver service to Philadelphia.

River Ferries

Simple Designs

Some ferries were simply small longboats that were rowed or sailed across a body of water. However, most were purpose-built with a simple design. They essentially consisted of a rectangular platform with a flat bottom and vertical sides. These ferries were easy and inexpensive to construct, with the only requirement being that they could float. The bottoms at each end angled upward, reducing water resistance and allowing for easier movement across the water. 

Most upriver ferries lacked landing docks, instead loading and unloading directly onto a natural riverbank, which was sometimes modified to include a sloping earth ramp for entry and exit. In more advanced ferries, a movable ramp was attached at each end, pivoting on hinges and operated by a long pole. 

When crossing, both ramps were kept in a raised position. The simplest and most reliable way to move a ferry across a typically shallow river was by manpower, specifically by poling. This method was used by most riverboats and was the technique employed by the Durham boats during the military transport across the Delaware in 1776. Some ferries used oars or winches pulling on ropes.

Photo of 19the century ferry - simple design little changed from 18th century
this one powered by winch and rope

The Ferry to Freedom

The ferry played a major role in the American War for Independence. The movement of supplies relied on them. But most important was the ferry's role in the movement of armies. Some engagements, such as Stonos Ferry in South Carolina (1779), took place at or near ferries, and many others were facilitated by ferry travel.

The battles around New York in 1776 (the setting for my first novel, The Patriot Spy) relied on ferry crossings to move troops and supplies. Brooklyn was central to Washington's escape from Long Island despite overwhelming British forces. He used the Brooklyn ferry point as his landing spot. 

Most famously, the ferries between Pennsylvania and New Jersey played key roles in the American Revolution. As the war moved across the Jerseys, other ferries operated on the Delaware. Trenton’s Lower Ferry earned the nickname "the Continental Ferry” because its owner, Elijah Bond, offered reduced rates to active American soldiers. 

During the British occupation of Philadelphia (September 1777–June 1778), American spies disguised as farmers used ferries on the Schuylkill River, including Gray’s Ferry, to slip in and out of the city. The most famous ferry incident of the war was George Washington and his army crossing the Delaware on Christmas night in 1776, at McConkey’s Ferry. This brave event and related stories are told in my second novel, The Cavalier Spy. But a lesser-known ferry in the region also played a crucial role in the fight for independence.

Washington's Crossing of Delaware on Durham boats
in December 1776

A Lesser Known Ferry

Some ten miles upriver on the Delaware was an important ferry run by John Coryell, a tavern keeper and ferry operator. Coryell's Ferry crossed the Delaware between what are now Lambertville, New Jersey, and New Hope, Pennsylvania. At the time, both towns were also known as Coryell's Ferry. Though less famous than McConkey's Ferry, Coryell's Ferry was a key crossing during the Revolutionary War. 

In early December 1776, Coryell refused passage to British soldiers as General Charles Cornwallis pursued the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. There was also military activity around Coryell's Ferry during this period, with Cornwallis's troops pressing the retreating Americans and guarding against local militias. In 1777, part of Washington's army camped near the ferry, using it to cross into Pennsylvania ahead of the Brandywine campaign.

Coryell's Ferry 1776

Mentioned in the Dispatches

Coryell's Ferry is referenced in three of George Washington's papers from December 1776: “General Orders, 12 December 1776,” “From George Washington to John Hancock, 12 December 1776,” “General Orders, 29 December 1776.” Spelling was inconsistent in 1700s America, and the ferry's name is spelled differently in each document—"Corells," "Corriels," and "Coryells." 

Campaign of 1778

Coryell's Ferry played a significant role in the Monmouth campaign of June 1778, when the Continental Army crossed there to pursue the British into the Jerseys. The events that initiated that crossing began the previous fall. The British army occupied the American capital, Philadelphia, from September 26, 1777, until June 18, 1778. This occupation compelled Congress to relocate to York, Pennsylvania, which demoralized many Americans. 

During that same winter of 1777, General George Washington positioned his army about twenty miles from Philadelphia at Valley Forge, which served as an excellent location for "winter quarters." The forge offered solid ground for defending against British attacks and was a strategic vantage point for observing or blocking British movements. 

In early 1778, the British recalled General William Howe and appointed his second-in-command, Sir Henry Clinton, as the new commander-in-chief. Recognizing his vulnerability and aiming to consolidate his forces for a new British strategy, Clinton decided to retreat to New York. His forces set out on June 18, 1777, crossing the Delaware River at Cooper's Ferry into New Jersey. From there, they began a northeast march across the Jerseys.

There were numerous ferries along the coastal and inland rivers
of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania 

By then, Washington had the Continental Army on the move. Learning of the British evacuation of Philadelphia, Washington decided it was time to leave Valley Forge. 

On June 20, the columns of dust-covered but eager soldiers arrived at the Pennsylvania side of Coryell's Ferry. The next day, Washington crossed to the New Jersey side (at today's Lambertville) and set up his headquarters at the Holcombe House. The main body of the army soon followed the commander-in-chief into New Jersey. This was not a secret, nighttime crossing like at Brooklyn or McConkey's. With a much larger force, including 700 horses and 200 wagons, the 1778 crossing was a large, loud event. 

By the morning of June 21, they began pursuing the retreating British. From Coryell’s Ferry, the army traveled through what is now West Amwell (then called simply Amwell). The main body camped near Ringoes on June 22. This effort culminated on June 28, when they fought the British near Monmouth Courthouse in the famous battle of that name. Although it was a draw, the Continental Army faced the British on equal terms in open battle. 

Crossing at Coryell's Ferry led to the battle at Monmouth

A Call for Help

Although Monmouth's maneuver and actions occurred in June, Washington had done extensive prior planning and clearly saw Coryell and his ferry as vital to his efforts to prevent the British from using it and to ensure its availability for the Continental Army. The dispatches to and from Coryell shown below provide insight into the logistical aspect of Washington's war, which required early preparation of the operational area. (Note: indifferent spelling was common across all classes during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies.)

To John Coryell
Head Quarters Valley Forge 1st March 1778

Sir

I am very anxious to have all the continental flat Boats below Trenton carried up the River as far as Easton or near it, that they may be intirely out of the Enemy’s reach—I have desired the Gentlemen of the Navy Board to order Commodore Hazelwood to collect all those and carry them up as far as Trenton and when he has got them there to let you know it. I shall therefore be exceedingly obliged to you if you will collect a proper number of hands who are used to carry Boats thro’ the Falls and go down for them when you have notice. Or if you do not receive such notice in a few days, the Men may as well go down to Bordentown where the Boats are and bring them up from thence. There are a number of Cannon and some Stores there which I want carried to a place of safety. If you think the Boats can be taken thro’ the falls with the Cannon in them, it will save much expence and secure them perfectly. You are to apply to Messrs Hopkinson and Wharton of the Continental Navy Board at Bordentown for the Cannon if they can be carried up in the Boats.

I see by a letter of yours to Colo. Lutterloh that you want Money for these purposes. You may hire the Men for doing this service upon an assurance of their being paid the moment it is performed. And you will therefore make out the account when you have finished and apply directly to me for the Money when it shall be paid with thanks. 

I am &c.

(Washington)

Coryell's Landing Toll House

Response to His Excellency

Coryells Ferry [Delaware River]

March the 6th 1778

Honoured Sr

I Recd yours of the 1st instant the third at night & am Determined to serve you according to your Directions If Possable the Badness of the weather has hindered me to proceed on with any more Boats since my Last1 but Expect to Start the Remainder in two or three Days that I now have at my Ferry & when they are gone I will go after the Rest I am afraid I cant Bring up any Cannon in the Fleet Boats If there should be any Dur[ha]m boats below as I Expect there is I kno I Can Bring up Canno[n] in them and Will I have ingaged a number of Brave watermen for the purpose & I am dr Sr your Humble sert

Jno. Coryell

P.S. there was a number of peac eis of Duck Left at my place I had to press sleds to move them to Reading & I Kept one for the use of my self & men; If it Cant be spared it is not Cut I will send it on.

J.C.

Coryell's Landing today