Rodrigue Hortalez & Cie.

As I began my research into the American War for Independence to gain background and context for the Yankee Doodle Spies novels, I uncovered many things I had not known or even imagined existed. The struggle for independence was long and complex, featuring, in addition to traditional aspects of warfare, civil war, insurgency, guerrilla warfare, diplomacy, piracy, espionage, counterespionage, code-breaking, propaganda, spying, and covert operations.

A Secret War

Not widely known, the French began a covert operation to bolster the American rebels against the British crown. But some French secret activities began much earlier. The King of France, Louis XVI, and his ministers were smarting from the considerable losses of land suffered in the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in America. France lost all of her North American colonial possessions (except a few small islands off the maritime provinces) and had been militarily humiliated by the British. Shortly after the Treaty of Paris in 1763 was signed, French agents went to the American colonies to sow discord between the colonists and their masters. As the actual conflict drew closer, both the Americans and the British expected some sort of French intervention. The question was where, what, and how?

The French & Indian War cost France her
New World power and global prestige

The Minister

Any intervention would be directed by Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, appointed foreign minister of France by Louis XVI in 1774. Vergennes hated the British, whom he considered France's natural enemy. With Vergennes at the helm of foreign policy, many believed France would be quick to provide aid following the actions at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. But Vergennes and the King moved deliberately. They anticipated another war (of revenge) against the British. They knew France was not yet ready, and they did not think the colonies could succeed. How to proceed?

Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes

The Playwright Spy

On the scene comes an unlikely figure: Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a watchmaker, playwright (Marriage of Figaro, Barber of Seville, etc.), inventor, musician, politician, fugitive, spy, publisher, arms-dealer, and... revolutionary.  Something akin to the "world's most interesting man", Beaumarchais was well known at the highest circles of French society. Louis XVI was an amateur watchmaker and one-time student of Beaumarchais. 

John Wilkes

As America boiled with patriotic fervor and rebellion, Beaumarchais developed a passion for liberty and the colonists' cause. It is no small irony that many in the highly stratified, autocratic French society were also bedazzled by the ideals of the American cause. This included the king and Vergennes - although their bedazzlement was as much an opportunity for revenge as a love of liberty. Beaumarchais approached Vergennes with a proposal to support the Americans. 

At first, Vergennes demurred. He knew the king was not ready to commit to action that might be exposed prematurely. During the run-up to and early months of the American Revolution, Beaumarchais was a French agent in London. He had made numerous secret connections with Americans and British, particularly Arthur Lee and British radical politician John Wilkes. Beaumarchais penned a letter (via Vergennes) to the king in late 1775, proposing a scheme to deliver covert arms to the Americans via the West Indies in exchange for tobacco and other American produce. Louis XVI demurred again at first but soon agreed.

Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais- the 
world's most interesting man in an age of
interesting men?

The Company

Arthur Lee

With the king's quiet approval, Vergennes instructed Caron de Beaumarchais to execute his scheme and set up a "proprietary" called Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie. This was a front company whose primary purpose was to protect France's role in aiding the American rebels. Beaumarchais, a master of intrigue, registered the company in Spain and ensured no paper trail could be traced to the French government or any other French public entity. Beaumarchais had "backers" for the company whose identities were kept secret. Beaumarchais engaged the sole American representative in Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut. Secret correspondence across the Atlantic and into London and Spain set things in motion. Deane would eventually be joined by Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin, which would take things into intrigues best left for another time.

Silas Deane played a pivotal role that ended
in controversy and ignominy

The "Business"

When the king approved the operation, Vergennes granted Beaumarchais an initial one million livres (several million dollars) to purchase and ship weapons and other war materiel to the Continental Army. At the same time, Vergennes pressured Spain, which contributed the same amount. Spain chafed at British ascendancy but, suspicious of Americans' intentions in Louisiana, dragged its feet. The crafty and persistent Vergennes soon succeeded in pushing them along. The front company prospered. In its first year of "business," Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie shipped over 30,000 muskets, 100,000 rounds of shot, hundreds of cannons, tents, ordnance, and clothing through New England merchants with shipping connections to the Indies. These items were critical to continuing the war effort, as America, by design, had little industrial capacity. 

The neutral Dutch islands in the Caribbean, such as Sint Eustatius, became a hotbed of clandestine shipping. Experienced American smugglers would navigate around British naval pickets to make secret transactions: typically, tobacco for arms and equipment. France shipped surplus and old (if not obsolete) weapons from its fortresses and armories. The tobacco and goods received were to be sold for cash, which was used to finance the French armaments industry, procuring new weapons for the French armies and navies that would eventually fight Britain. Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie continued in business for two years.

Sint Eustatius was a major transit point for
the secret weapons-for-goods trade

The Covert War goes Overt

Franklin and Lee's arrival heated up the diplomatic situation as Franklin, surrounded by British agents, employed a masterful stratagem to woo the French public and ruling class. Yet the covert war had long been established by Deane and Beaumarchais. Now, however, Beaumarchais faded into the shadows, and Deane was soon recalled to America on corruption charges that were never proven. 

After the Continental Army soundly defeated the British at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, things changed dramatically. France entered into an alliance with the infant United States in early 1778, while a reluctant Spain finally declared war on Britain in 1779. Still suspicious of the Americans, Spain allied itself only with France. Regardless, much more aid was now shipped to the colonies, this time openly, in the bellies of warships and transports, rather than under cover of the covert and private enterprise that was Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie.

Benjamin Franklin waged a masterful subterfuge and
charm offensive as commissioner in Paris

The Legacy of Untidy Business

As the war's progress made Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie unnecessary, some "unfinished business" fell to the American Commission in Paris, which now included John Adams in place of Deane. The correspondence below offers a glimpse into the untidiness of wrapping up covert affairs... even in the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies...

Passi Septemr. 10. 1778

From the American Commissioners

To Comte de Vergennes

Sir

By some of the last Ships from America, we received from Congress certain Powers and Instructions, which we think it necessary to lay before your Excellency, and which we have the Honor to do in this Letter.

We have the Honor to enclose to your Excellency a Copy of the Contract made between the Committee and Mr. Francy, a Copy of Mr. Francy's Powers, and a Copy of the list of Articles to be furnished, according to that Contract, that your Excellency, may have before you all the Papers relative to this Subject.

We are under a Necessity of applying to your Excellency upon this Occasion, and of requesting your Advice.

With Regard to what is passed, we know not who the Persons are, who constitute the House of Roderigue Hortalez & Company, but we have ever understood, and Congress has ever understood, and so have the People in America in general, that they were under Obligation to his Majestys good will, for the greatest part of the Merchandizes, and Warlike Stores heretofore furnished, under the Firm of Roderigue Hortalez & Company. We cannot discover that any written Contract was ever made between Congress or any Agent of theirs, and the House of Roderigue Hortalez & Co., nor do we know of any living Witness, or any other Evidence, whose Testimony can ascertain to us, who the Persons are that constitute the House of Roderigue Hortalez & Company, or what were the Terms upon which the Merchandises and Munitions of War were supplied, neither as to the Price, nor the Time or Conditions of Payment.

As we said before, we apprehend that the United States hold themselves under Obligation to his Majesty, for all these Supplies, and we are sure it is their Wish and their Determination to discharge the Obligation to his Majesty, as soon as providence shall put it in their Power. In the mean time, we are ready to settle and liquidate the Accounts according to our Instructions, at any time and in any Manner, which his Majesty, or your Excellency shall set out to us.

As the Contract for future Supplies is to be ratified, or not ratified by us, as we shall judge expeditious we must request your Excellencys Advice as a favor upon this Head, and whether it would be safe or prudent in us to ratify it, and in Congress to depend upon Supplies from this Quarter, because if we should depend upon their Resource for Supplies, and be disappointed, the Consequences would be fatal to our Country. 

We have the Honor to be

 with all Respect Your Excellencys

 most Obedient and very humble Servants

B Franklin
Arthur Lee
 John Adams

The Patriot Seaman

A Strategy of Sorts

The American Revolution was intensely complex. It started as a political movement and then turned into an armed uprising that developed into a war for independence, along with aspects of a civil war, a secret war, and ultimately a global conflict. But it was also an economic war. The British aimed to control and shut down American commerce, which was the colonies' vital lifeline. In some ways, British actions during the ten years leading up to Lexington and Concord were about gaining the most from the colonies without letting them become too wealthy, large, or influential. Some in Parliament and British leadership worried that someday the American colonies would surpass Britain in population, strength, and reputation. How right they were! Yet, instead of figuring out how to benefit from this, they tried to prevent it.

Down to the Sea in Ships

When war broke out, the British strategy involved surrounding the Americans with Indian and Canadian allies to the west and north. The east and south would be handled by the Royal Navy. So, a naval war became the less discussed but equally important, if not more so, than the land war. Great Britain had the largest and most powerful navy in the world, while the American colonies had none. America did have a growing and capable merchant marine, along with the raw materials to build ships. As a result, it began creating its own small navy and converting its merchant ships into privateers and naval vessels. This success was only possible thanks to the brave and determined men who sailed the ships and the resourceful, resolute men who captained them. This is one such captain's story.

     

A Navy Built from Merchantmen

Connecticut Navy

Seth Harding was born in Eastham, Massachusetts, although he moved to Norwich, Connecticut, when he was a young man. Harding went to sea early in his life and commanded several merchant ships during the French and Indian War. By 1771, he had moved to Liverpool, Nova Scotia. At the start of the American Revolution in 1775, he returned to Connecticut and offered his services to its nascent navy. Harding was commissioned as commander of the state brig, Defence. Harding captured many British ships while in command of this vessel and two others. He was first sent on patrol near Boston Harbor, where on June 12, 1775, he captured the British armed transport ship, George. Along with the ship, he took several hundred Scottish soldiers of the 71st Highland Regiment and their commander, Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell.

Naval Actions Were Small

Most American actions, including Harding's, were small-scale but still played a vital role in the war. Here is a contemporary letter that mentions one of Harding's exploits:

FAIRFIELD, MAY 13, 1776.

More Tory business. Last Sunday Captain Harding, in the brig Defence, had the happiness of taking a number of Tories who were crossing over to Long Island, on some of their pious errands, I suppose; among whom was one McNeal, a wretch you have often seen up town. He generally wore a white hat and blue silk jacket; in exchange for which, I hope, they will give him a coat-of-mail, that is, one of lime and stone.

It is said there were a number of letters found on them, giving an account of their diabolical schemes, together with the names of several of their associates. In consequence of which, a number of gentlemen resolved to break up the den, and set off to Ridgefield; among whom was the bold asserter of his country's cause, Major Dimon, who, I have this moment heard, had like to have lost his life, in reposing too much confidence in one of the villains. It seems he was very active in taking one Lyons, who, after he had surrendered, invited him in, where he had a number of the brother murderers concealed, that fell on him and would have put an end to his life, had not some of his friends very providentially come to his assistance. The Major, I am told, is much wounded in the head, but still had resolution to go in quest of the others.

You shall hear further in my next.





During his service with Connecticut's navy, Harding actually commanded two brigs named Defence and   Oliver Cromwell. His success led to bigger and better things.

John Jay

Continental Navy

In September 1778, Harding accepted a Continental Navy commission and took command of a new 32-gun frigate, Confederacy. In 1779, he sailed along the East Coast with two other ships, Boston and Deane, capturing three prizes and performing convoy duties. His ship was undermanned, so he had to impress several French prisoners being exchanged by the British. During this cruise, the American flotilla captured a British privateer, Pole, and a schooner, Patsey, in addition to several merchant vessels. Overall, good work. In September of that year, Harding was instructed to take John Jay, the newly appointed American Minister to Spain, to Europe, but a tremendous Atlantic storm struck them, and the ship was dismasted 10 days out. Harding, through skillful seamanship, sailed his ship to Martinique for repairs, while his passengers continued on another vessel.

Continental Navy

"The Harding" goes to Work

Once repaired, Harding got back to work. Confederacy raided British merchant ships and protected convoys until April 18, 1781, when, at the Delaware Capes, she had to surrender to two British ships, the 44-gun Roebuck and 32-gun Orpheus. In early 1782, Harding was exchanged. He then commanded the privateer Diana, but was captured again near Jamaica. And once more, he was released. This was fairly common. Wanting more action, Harding volunteered to serve as First Lieutenant to famous American naval Captain John Barry on the Alliance. In October 1783, Harding was wounded during the final battle of the war, fighting off the coast of France against HMS Sybill. By then, Harding had gained a reputation, especially in France, where he was held in high regard. The King of France, Louis XVI, called him "the Harding."

John Barry

Back to the Merchant Navy

After the war, Harding returned to the merchant marine, sailing and trading in the Virgin Islands. He even became a Danish citizen to improve his business opportunities there. By 1786, Harding's war wounds had weakened him enough to retire, and he first settled in New York City. Clearly, New York drained his resources, and over time, he sank into poverty. In 1807, Congress granted him a pension. The fighting merchantman died in Schoharie, New York, in November 1814. Harding's talents and achievements reflect the young American navy and merchant marine, which played vital roles in securing independence, peace, and prosperity for the young nation.

The World War I vintage USS Harding, DD-91, is named after this fighting first-patriot...