Solid Soldier

Oft mentioned, Little Known

I have profiled a few of the "second-tier" First Patriots, those who played important but less widely celebrated roles in the American fight for independence. This blog examines one such individual from the British side. While researching the background of the Yankee Doodle Spies, I noticed that the name Alexander Leslie appeared more often than others. His name came up in battles and campaigns from New York to the Carolinas. I started to wonder about this man, who seemed to lead troops and be involved in the most interesting places but never quite became a household name like Simon Fraser or Banastre Tarleton.

Alexander Leslie

Before the outbreak of War

Alexander Leslie, son of the Earl of Leven and Melville, joined the army in 1753 as an ensign in the Third Foot Guards. By 1768, he had become a lieutenant-colonel of the 64th regiment, stationed in Boston. His rapid rise in rank reflects Britain's extensive military commitments during that period of warfare. Leslie served with the British garrison at Boston before the outbreak of hostilities in 1775. Before the American War of Independence began, he led troops on a mission to Salem, Massachusetts, to search for contraband weapons, including cannon, held by the Patriots. A confrontation—not physical—with rebels at a raised bridge disrupted the mission and delayed his advance. His force was eventually allowed to proceed into Salem, but they found nothing of importance and retreated. An early version of Lexington and Concord was narrowly avoided. One wonders if a more hot-blooded commander might have produced a different outcome. It is said that a spy provided Leslie's commander, Gage, with faulty intelligence.

The Retreat at Salem Bridge

Mostly success in the North

Leslie's Light Infantry led the night movement
that cut off a large part of the rebel army on Long Island

By the New York campaign of 1776, he became a brigadier-general. He led troops on Long Island, at Kip's Bay, and at Harlem Heights. Leslie commanded a brigade of Light Infantry, elite soldiers skilled at fighting in America's fields and forests. Men who could shoot, move, and fight better than most. His brigade formed the advanced guard of General William Howe's strategic night envelopment of Washington's forces. The Light Infantry seized the strategic Jamaica pass at night and led a nighttime advance that cut off a large part of the American troops. Leslie's command suffered 63 casualties for their efforts. This was a relatively small number for such a critical and successful action, but it mirrored the casualties of other brigades that fought during that hot day near Brooklyn. However, when the British took New York, Leslie's Light Infantry was mauled by Colonel Thomas Knowlton's Rangers at the Battle of Harlem Heights. Unfortunately for the American cause, Knowlton was mortally wounded. Much of this is captured in book one of "Yankee Doodle Spies," The Patriot Spy.

Battle of Harlem Heights

When the British landed north of New York in October 1776, Leslie's command was once again in the fight, but he suffered heavy losses at the Battle of White Plains. The solid and steady Leslie missed a chance to earn glory at Princeton in January 1777. General Washington had escaped the British under Lord Cornwallis through a night march around the British left toward Princeton, which was several miles behind Cornwallis. Leslie commanded the brigade garrisoning Maidenhead (today's Lawrenceville, NJ). Lord Cornwallis ordered Leslie and Mawhood's brigades into action. But before Leslie could get involved, the vanguard of the Continental Army broke through Colonel Mawhood's brigade and took Princeton. The Continental Army escaped Cornwallis and found safety behind the Watchung Mountains at Morristown. Leslie also took part in the siege of Charleston as commander of the combined brigade: four battalions of Light Infantry and elite Grenadiers, the best of the British troops. When Charleston fell, Leslie initially took command of the city. He stayed there only a few weeks. Once he had organized the garrison, General Henry Clinton ordered him back to the main British garrison in New York, where he took command of the Light Infantry and Grenadiers stationed there.

Washington leads the attack at Princeton

Struggling in the South

In the autumn of 1780, Clinton sent Leslie to the Chesapeake Bay leading an expedition aimed at distracting American forces and then capturing the supplies the Americans had gathered for their defense. Leslie reached Virginia in October but soon received orders from Cornwallis (who was now under his command) to proceed to Charleston. Leslie likely realized that Virginia would be critical to the war's successful ending, so before heading south, he sought confirmation from Clinton. His correspondence indicates he was reluctant to go south. Before leaving Virginia, he wrote Clinton expressing hope that "you will be able to take up this ground; for it certainly is the key to the wealth of Virginia and Maryland." Nonetheless, he headed south. Leslie arrived in Charleston in mid-December and received orders to march inland and meet up with Cornwallis's army. Cornwallis decided to wait for Leslie to reinforce him before moving to join forces with Banastre Tarleton. That decision proved a critical mistake. Due to bad weather, Leslie's force only reached the main army camp on January 18, one day after the Battle of Cowpens. Tarleton then had to face Daniel Morgan's division without support from Cornwallis, whose presence might have turned it into a British victory instead of a decisive defeat.

The Cowpens

 Leslie's command accompanied Cornwallis's forces in pursuit of General Nathanael Greene's army. At Guilford Courthouse, he commanded the British right in a style Cornwallis praised in his follow-up dispatch: "I have been particularly indebted to Major-General Leslie for his gallantry and exertion in the action, as well as his assistance in every other part of the service." Leslie took part in the challenging march north from the Carolinas into Virginia, one of the remarkable feats of the war. However, Leslie was not with Cornwallis at the siege and surrender of Yorktown. By the summer of 1781, his health had declined to a point where Cornwallis transferred him to Charleston, from where Clinton recalled him to New York.

But the stay in New York was short. On August 31st, Clinton ordered him to sail once again to Charleston and take command. After Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, Clinton placed Leslie in charge of all British forces in the South. The weather and stress of command took a toll on Leslie. He had a bad fall from his horse that weakened him and complicated his other health issues. Recognizing his poor health, he asked to return to New York, but Clinton could not spare him. He remained in command throughout the rest of the year despite numerous requests to be relieved due to worsening physical stamina and stress management. Leslie had worked in America for years, his wife was dead, and he had a daughter he wanted to see and ensure a good marriage for. He suggested several suitable replacements, but Clinton, although claiming sympathy, delayed and stalled his requests.

After the British took Charleston, it became the
"Green Zone"of the southern theater

Frustrating Finish

So Leslie soldiered on, supervising the decline of British interests in the south. After the treaty, he organized the consolidation and removal of British garrisons while dealing with relentless rebels, disheartened troops, and complaining Loyalists. These groups watched in disbelief as their birthright and lives evaporated, as the British withdrawal from Charleston approached. In the end, Leslie's command in Charleston outlasted Clinton's stay in New York, which the new British commander-in-chief, General Guy Carleton, would have the honor of evacuating. Gradually pulling back the British inland garrisons from outposts, maintaining order, and repelling rebel attacks was a difficult task that offered little glory. The time in Charleston would have drained even a strong man. The southern rebels were among the most active throughout the war, engaging in bitter small-scale fighting, property theft (by both sides), and general chaos. As thousands of Loyalists moved into Charleston (another kind of "Green Zone,” like New York), the challenge of caring for civilians became overwhelming. Leslie's attempts to arrange a cease-fire of sorts went unanswered by the Americans, who now sensed blood and always suspected British traps. Leslie remained in command of the city until it was finally evacuated in December 1782.

Back (at last) to Britain

Leslie, who would remain a widower his entire life, returned to Scotland in 1783. On a happy note, he was able to witness his daughter Mary-Anne's wedding in 1787. According to accounts, Leslie was well-liked by his peers and considered genteel and mild-mannered by most. His life after America is surprisingly obscure, given that he was appointed deputy commander of the forces in Britain. In 1794, he was near Glasgow, Scotland, where he led troops to suppress a rebellion by the Breadalbane Regiment of Fencibles. Some reports claim he was hit by a stone while marching some of the prisoners away and died shortly afterward. However, at least one eyewitness account disputes that and points to a Major Leslie as the victim. Regardless, the quiet and easygoing Scot died in December of that year. His death was, like his army career, unannounced and little noted. Yet the stalwart Scot should not be dismissed lightly. He served honorably through great hardship and, unlike many of his contemporaries, with little regard for his own glory.

The Last Fort

The Place

When General George Washington and the Continental Army arrived in New York in early summer 1776, the strategic situation was grim. British control of the waterways and superiority in artillery meant that New York, especially the island now called Manhattan, could be threatened from any direction. Although the British approach from the sea made a southern attack most likely, the commander in chief had to prepare for assaults from all sides. To his troops' dismay, Washington ordered fortifications to be built all around the island.

The men worked tirelessly with shovels and picks. Despite their efforts, most of these were primitive and poorly constructed earthworks. However, on June 20, 1776, some Pennsylvania battalions of the Continental Army began building a five-bastion fort at the corner of what is now Fort Washington Avenue and 183rd Street. 

The quickly assembled earthen-walled structure lacked a water supply and a strong barricade to fend off attackers. Still, it was located on the highest hill on Manhattan Island. This made it an ideal spot for the fort, with views over the Hudson River to the east, the Manhattan valley stretching south to what is now 120th Street, and protection on the north side from high ground that commanded the Kings Bridge approach. They named it Fort Washington to honor their commander-in-chief.

The Namesake

Colonel Robert Magaw
hoped to defend the fort

Washington correctly recognized the high ground at the north end of the island as strategically important. Along with its "sister" fort, Fort Lee (named after Washington's deputy commander, Charles Lee), Fort Washington controlled access to the Hudson Valley, the Bronx, Westchester, and areas bordering New England. It also posed a threat to any forces occupying the central and lower parts of New York Island. 

However, without support and with limited troops, Washington's namesake was a liability to his plans and would jeopardize many of his best men. After the British forces led by Lieutenant General William Howe defeated the Continental Army at the Battle of White Plains, they moved to seize Fort Washington, the last American stronghold in Manhattan. 

Recognizing this threat, Washington issued a "discretionary" order to General Nathaniel Greene to abandon the fort and evacuate its 3,000-man garrison to New Jersey. Yet, the fort's commander, Pennsylvania Colonel Robert Magaw, refused to abandon it. He believed it could still be defended against the British and begged Greene to let him hold the position. 

Greene agreed to leave Magaw in charge until he could consult with Washington, and then crossed the Hudson to review the situation. Sadly, the usually sluggish Howe attacked the fort before Washington could fully assess the situation.

The Battle

Throughout that summer and fall of 1776, Lord Howe's British land and naval forces carried out an effective, albeit slow, land-sea campaign that pushed the Continentals off Long Island and most of New York Island. By November, the last position the Americans held on Manhattan was around Fort Washington at the northern tip, known as Harlem Heights. Now, with Washington retreating from White Plains and heading into New Jersey, he decided to strike. 

Howe planned three attacks: Brigadier Lord Percy was to attack from the south up the island, Brigadier Matthews with the light infantry and Guards was to cross the Harlem River and attack Baxter on the east side, supported by Lord Cornwallis with the grenadiers and the 33rd Foot. The main attack was to target Colonel Rawlings’ position, with Hessian troops commanded by General Von Knyphausen. An additional assault was to be launched on the same side by the 42nd Highland Regiment (the famous Black Watch) under Colonel Sterling.

British ships bombarding

Early on November 15th, General Howe demanded the fort's surrender. McGaw refused. The British batteries across the Harlem River and the frigate Pearl launched a bombardment against American positions. Percy's forces moved forward to attack. By noon, Matthews landed on Manhattan and began his assault. The American commander defending the works was killed, and his militia retreated to the fort. 

However, the main threat originated from the north. General Knyphausen crossed from the Bronx onto Manhattan at Kingsbridge. His two Hessian columns attacked American positions along the high, wooded ground. After fierce fighting, Rawlings’ riflemen withdrew into the fort. Meanwhile, Hugh Percy, leading about 2,000 regulars through McGowan's Pass, attacked Colonel Lambert Cadwallader and his 800 Pennsylvanians on the south side of the fort. 

Hessians Overrunning Fort Washington

and Wounding of Mary Corbin

Simultaneously, the 42nd landed on the east side in a diversion and pushed inland behind Cadwallader’s forces. This caused the Americans manning the outer defenses to fall back to the fort as well. With all troops confined inside Fort Washington and under heavy fire, Magaw surrendered to Hessian General Knyphausen. Casualties were high on both sides: the British suffered 450 casualties, including 320 skilled Hessians, while the Americans endured 2,900 casualties, most of whom were prisoners.

The 42nd landing

Aftermath

From across the river, its sister Fort Lee, George Washington watched helplessly as his last hold on the strategic island of New York evaporated. Almost 3,000 men from some of his best regiments marched off into captivity. As critical, valuable, and irreplaceable supplies and munitions, including 150 cannons, fell to the British, who occupied the fort and renamed it Fort Knyphausen after the Hessian general instrumental in capturing it. 

Washington watched in frustration from Fort Lee

The high ground covering the northern approach to Kingsbridge was turned into a separate fort, named after New York's last Royal Governor, Tryon. A third fort was named Fort George. The fact that the British constructed three forts where a single large American fort once stood is significant. In Magaw's defense, he was not given enough men to properly man and defend the extensive positions. 

This is a common theme in fort defenses (to be repeated at Ticonderoga the following year)—they could become a death trap if the garrison wasn't large enough. The British army and its sympathizers then occupied the city until the American victory in 1783. After the war, remnants of the fort disappeared, and the surrounding area became known as Washington Heights. Granite paving marks the former contours of Fort Washington in the southern part of nearby Bennett Park.

BOOK REVIEW: Spies, Patriots and Traitors by Kenneth Daigler

To paraphrase the most interesting man in the world... I don't usually do book reviews on the Yankee Doodle Spies blog. Still, when I do, it's about a great book that highlights the importance of the American Revolution from a military intelligence perspective. This new book definitely made the list.

Kenneth Daigler spent his career as a CIA officer, where he learned the craft of espionage firsthand. In his latest book, Spies, Patriots, and Traitors, he reveals some of the nation's darkest espionage secrets. But they are secrets that have puzzled historians for over 200 years: secrets of the American Revolution. There have been a few books on this subject in recent decades, but none have the breadth and scope of this one. And none are as well documented and well written. Daigler covers a wide range of espionage activities and presents the big picture while diving deep into areas that are sure to fascinate the reader. He starts at the beginning—showing that even the political unrest that led to armed rebellion had an intelligence component. In a sense, he depicts a nation born of secrecy and covert activities.

A Case Officer's Perspective on the Two Big Cases

One of the many things that sets this work apart from others of its kind is the author's personal experience in the espionage trade. He draws on that to analyze numerous cases and explains the timeless aspects of espionage: planning, security, and communications. He shows that the absence of these three elements led to two failures—one for us and one for the British. 

Interestingly, these are the most famous espionage cases of the war: Nathan Hale and Benedict Arnold. In the case of Hale, the entire operational cycle was as ineffective as it could be. The author notes that Hale was inherently unqualified for the mission, which was poorly defined. Unsurprisingly, it failed on all fronts and ended in disaster. 

Daigler also points out that, despite some operational shortcomings, Arnold's case could have succeeded. However, Arnold's personal traits—ego, greed, arrogance—caused him to pressure his former handler, the inexperienced Major John Andre, into making a series of mistakes that eventually cost the British the operation and Andre his life.

Benedict Arnold

Lesser-Known Spies

 Daigler explores lesser-known cases with just as much enthusiasm: the establishment (or lack thereof) of counterintelligence under John Jay; Nathaniel Greene's skilled use of intelligence to secure victory in the southern campaign; the "secret war" in Europe; and Washington's efforts to employ intelligence, counterintelligence, and deception to surprise the British at Yorktown. The author also offers a perspective on the Culper Ring that differs from other accounts, highlighting that it was just one of many agencies Washington relied on—albeit a crucial one. 

Daigler details the activities of Benjamin Tallmadge—not only with his Culper Ring but also in other roles he served for Washington. The book recounts the daring exploits of the little-known John Honeyman, who spied on the Hessians during the darkest days just before the surprise attack on Trenton. Another noteworthy part of the book is his discussion of the plot against Washington and the British effort to destabilize the American economy through counterfeiting Continental dollars.

Benjamin Tallmadge

Other Pluses

James Armistead

The book is full of engaging illustrations of both well-known and lesser-known figures in the intelligence world. The author has also created a timeline of espionage during the American Revolution and, most helpfully for the layperson, a Glossary of Tradecraft Terms. He offers a powerful look at the struggles of African Americans, many of whom were slaves used by both sides. 

Ultimately, neither side treated them very well for their service, although there are some notable exceptions. The story of the African slaves is best exemplified by James Armistead, owned by a Virginia planter, who infiltrated British lines during the Yorktown campaign. 

His bravery and resourcefulness provided critical intelligence while under the noses of the British. He also discusses the role of counterintelligence, the British approach to espionage, and, of course, George Washington’s role as the Case Officer in Chief (my words).

Did intelligence win the war for American independence?

The author concludes with a discussion of that topic. One must conclude that intelligence played a crucial role in America's survival during the early years of the war and its ultimate victory. This does not mean that British intelligence was lacking. They had excellent worldwide coverage of American interests, and their Loyalist allies provided ready-made pools of agents, some already organized into cells. However, their leadership failed to capitalize on the opportunity. In contrast, George Washington clearly developed, over the course of an eight-year war, the ability to use intelligence and counterintelligence more effectively than the British high command. And that made all the difference.

George Washington, the Spymaster

I wish I had this book when I first started writing the Yankee Doodle Spies novels several years ago. Now that it’s available, it serves as an excellent non-fiction companion for those reading the series. You'll find many of the events and characters depicted through the fictional persons and actions in the Yankee Doodle Spies series, along with numerous historical figures and events as well.

I give this very excellent work, Four Tricorne Hats!