The Prodigy

 This final post of 2023 features another historical figure from my novel, The Lafayette Circle. Although John Quincy Adams plays a relatively small role in this tale of intrigue and chaos in early 19th-century America, he seeds ideas that made Marquis de Lafayette's 1824-1825 visit more than just a celebration of friendship between two nations.

John Quincy Adams - 

the youthful diplomat

Apprentice Diplomat

John Quincy Adams was destined to grow up in the shadow of his father, John, an accomplished lawyer, statesman, and politician who helped shape the American Revolution and establish the foundation of the United States, becoming its second chief executive. Young John Quincy was born on July 11, 1767, at the family home in Braintree, Massachusetts, which is present-day Quincy. His intensely patriotic and accomplished parents influenced his early upbringing and provided him with a classical education. The American Revolution unfolded before his eyes as he was among the many people in and around Boston who nervously watched the patriots battle lines of redcoats at Bunker Hill in 1775. 

Watching Bunker Hill

Exchange Student

Three years later, he left his mother to go with his father on a diplomatic mission to Europe, marking the start of his real education. From 1778 to 1779, he studied at a private school in Paris, where he improved his fluency in French, the language of diplomats. After this, he attended the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, where he learned some Dutch.

The Boy Prodigy

By 1781, he had become proficient enough in French for his father to secure a position for John Quincy as private secretary to one of America's leading diplomats, Francis Dana, who had been appointed US Envoy to the court of Russia in St. Petersburg. When Dana's mission failed, he returned to Paris, where he served as a secretary to the American Commissioners during their negotiations with the British. 

The Law and the Hague

When the Treaty of Paris was signed, he returned to the U.S. to study at Harvard College and then in Newburyport under the guidance of Theophilus Parsons, where he studied law. By 1790, he was a member of the bar in Boston. Adams began private practice but also started writing pamphlets on political doctrine and foreign policy, supporting President George Washington's firm stance on neutrality in foreign affairs. This led to his appointment as U.S. minister to the Netherlands in 1794.

President George Washington

The wars of the French Revolution were raging, and The Hague was a hub of diplomatic intrigue. Adams's dispatches and letters provided the Washington administration (which included his father as Vice President) with valuable information. He held a temporary position in London to help facilitate the 1794 Jay Treaty—a pivotal and controversial foreign policy initiative.

The Diplomat

For his commendable service, in 1796, President Washington appointed him as the US Envoy to Portugal. However, when Dad became the nation's second president, he changed his son's assignment to Prussia. But pleasure before business—Adams married Louisa Catherine Johnson, a diplomat's daughter whom he met in Paris when he was just twelve. She proved to be a charming and capable partner to the rising young diplomat. They married in London before heading to Berlin, where he negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce with the Prussians. But in 1800, politics turned against him with the election of Thomas Jefferson, who recalled Adams from his post.

Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams

Political Life

Adams returned to Boston, where state and federal politics became his new arena. By 1802, he was a member of the Massachusetts State Senate, and in 1803, he was elected as a U.S. Senator from Massachusetts. "Battleground" is actually a more accurate description. Adams was as sharp-tongued as his father and did not favor "factions." He voted according to his conscience, which often put him at odds with one party or the other. He grew estranged from his father's Federalist Party, which by then had turned against him. 

Support for the Embargo Act Cost Adams His Job

This all reached a boiling point when he supported Thomas Jefferson's Embargo Act, a measure opposed by New Englanders who valued Britain as a trading partner. In 1808, the Massachusetts Senate voted him out of office, which led to his resignation. Adams aligned with the Republicans and took a position as a professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard College.

Envoy to Russia

The world was at war with Napoleonic France, and President Madison needed a key player to handle the situation. The highly experienced Adams was the right choice, especially since he had broken away from the Federalists. From that position, the sharp Adams watched the collapse of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte's army in 1812 and the fall of his empire over the next two years. Adams was present at the Court of St. Petersburg just as Czar Alexander rose in stature as a leader in the coalition against Napoleon.

Czar Alexander I - Power Broker

Treaty of Ghent

Meanwhile, war had erupted between the U.S. and Great Britain, which was Russia's ally. Adams eagerly accepted Czar Alexander's offer to mediate in the fall of 1812. The initiative, with Adams as one of the lead commissioners, ultimately failed. However, a follow-up effort in 1814 under Adams's leadership resulted in the Treaty of Ghent. This face-saving status quo ante arrangement changed little diplomatically or politically. Still, it gave the small U.S. the confidence and morale boost of having gone toe-to-toe with what was now the world's reigning superpower.

Signing the Treaty of Ghent

Like Father, Like Son

After a brief stay in Paris during Napoleon's short return to power in 1815, he followed in his father's footsteps. He traveled to London, where he and Henry Clay negotiated a "Convention to Regulate Commerce and Navigation." Soon afterward, he became the U.S. minister to Great Britain, just as his father had been before him and as his son Charles was to be afterward. His time at the Court of St. James was brief, as Adams returned to the United States in the summer of 1817 to serve as secretary of state in President James Monroe's cabinet. This appointment was mainly based on his diplomatic experience, but also because the president aimed to have a sectionally balanced cabinet during what became known as the Era of Good Feelings.

St. James Palace

Manifest Destiny

Adams's tenure as Secretary of State was, as expected, outstanding—especially for someone groomed for the job since the age of fourteen. He worked diligently with Spain to resolve the long-standing dispute over America's western and southwestern borders. The Spanish Minister Onis agreed that Spain would relinquish its claims to lands east of the Mississippi River. In return, Adams decided that the United States would waive its claims to Texas. The two countries agreed on a boundary stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Years of dispute were settled through the signing of what was called the Adams-Onis Transcontinental Treaty.

In 1818, he also resolved the northern frontier dispute with Great Britain by establishing the 49th parallel all the way to the Rocky Mountains.

The Monroe Doctrine

Adams was a principal architect of U.S. policy on foreign interference in the Western Hemisphere. This is his main role in my novel, The Lafayette Circle. Instead of a joint U.S.-British declaration to European powers and the Spanish territories in America, he convinced President James Monroe to act independently. 

The letter he helped draft to Congress in late 1823 and issued in 1824 served as a firm warning to those hoping to exploit the former colonies, which seemed vulnerable to certain powers. What later became known as The Monroe Doctrine aimed to shield the newly independent lands from recolonization and laid the foundation of U.S. foreign policy for more than a century.

James Monroe

The Second President Adams

The 1824 election was marked by chaos and political maneuvering, all within the boundaries set by the US Constitution. With none of the four candidates—Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and William Crawford—receiving the required number of electoral votes, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, which chose from the top three (Jackson, Adams, Clay) in a one-vote-per-state "play-off." Henry Clay saw Jackson as a dangerous demagogue and supported Adams, effectively helping him secure the presidency. The Jacksonians protested when Adams later appointed Clay as Secretary of State.

Henry Clay

Adams worked long and hard as president, but the anger of the Jacksonians (who suspected a corrupt bargain) hovered like a cloud over his term, as they opposed him on everything. Adams's hopes of creating a national university and a national astronomical observatory were crushed. His idea that the western territories should develop gradually was rejected outright. Even his infrastructure plans—building bridges, ports, and roads with federal funding—were blocked. Jackson defeated Adams in the 1828 election.

Andrew Jackson

In an interesting link to my novel, The Lafayette Circle, one of Adams's earliest acts as president was to join General Lafayette on a farewell visit to former President James Monroe at his estate in Leesburg, Virginia.

Representative of the People

In a move that stunned many as "degrading to a former president," Adams ran for a seat in the House of Representatives in 1831, asserting that serving the public as a representative in Congress was not degrading. He represented the people in Congress until he died in 1848. During those years, he fought tirelessly against slavery and its expansion, as well as the various tactics employed by the slave bloc in Congress to expand and uphold their peculiar institution.

President John Quincy Adams

Bold Advocate

When Africans arrested aboard the slave ship Amistad were marked to be returned to their owners, John Quincy Adams took up their cause, defending them before the U.S. Supreme Court—and winning their freedom. Adams's entire career had aimed at one main goal—doing the right thing. In this, he faced a mix of success and failure, but his consistent efforts made him one of the top leaders of early America after the founding fathers.

Defending the Armistead Slaves

The Lion's Last Roar

Adams was in the House of Representatives, fighting a bill to honor Mexican War veterans. He had strongly opposed the war, viewing it as an act of aggression partly aimed at expanding slavery. He was about to criticize the vote when he collapsed. He was rushed to the Speaker's Room and died two days later, on February 23, 1848, from a stroke. The boy prodigy, now a prominent figure in Congress, passed away working and fighting at age 81, with his wife Louisa by his side. It is said that his last words were, "This is the last of earth, but I am composed."

  

Adams Died a Servant of  the People

The Third Virginian

 

It is a sad commentary that most Americans are more familiar with Marilyn Monroe than with the first patriot sharing her last name. And who knows? Maybe the Hollywood star who renamed Norma Jean was a history buff? But I digress. This profile shines a light on one of those diligent founders who quietly left his mark on America and the world. The fact that James Monroe is also a significant historical figure in my novel, The Lafayette Circle, makes his story even more compelling.

Norma Jean

Planter Orphan

James Monroe was born at the aptly named Monroe Hall in Westmorland County, Virginia, on April 28, 1758. His father was a moderately successful planter. Both of his parents died when Monroe was a teenager, and he took over the plantation and cared for his siblings under the guidance of his mother's brother, Joseph Jones, a member of the House of Burgesses. Jones took young Monroe to Williamsburg and enrolled him in the College of William and Mary. His uncle also introduced him to prominent Virginians like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Patrick Henry—future leaders who would help shape the world, just as young James would.

Williamsburg

Patriotic Student

Williamsburg was alive with patriotic enthusiasm. Monroe was still attending William and Mary College when the Revolutionary War started in April 1775. Eager to join the fight like many other young Virginians, he left William and Mary, and on September 28, 1775, Monroe was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 3rd Virginia Continental Infantry. His first commander was Colonel Hugh Mercer, who would become one of General George Washington's most trusted generals until his early death at Princeton caused by British bayonets. Lieutenant Monroe marched north to New York City with his regiment the next year.

The Virginia Line

Years of Combat

There, he first saw combat at Harlem Heights on September 16, 1776, and volunteered to join Major Thomas Knowlton's rangers. Knowlton, who was mortally wounded in that skirmish, became the namesake of the Military Intelligence Corps' honorary award, which bears his name.

After more fighting at White Plains in October, British General William Howe managed to flank the Continental Army but let it escape to New Jersey. Monroe's regiment moved south and west in a series of retreats, causing the Continental Army to shrink and American morale to drop. By late December, Washington's small force was gathered on the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware River and was in serious trouble.

An Army in Retreat

Things changed with the arrival of General John Sullivan as the leader of General Charles Lee's division. Interestingly, Lee had allowed himself to be captured at Bosking Ridge, New Jersey, by a group of British dragoons, including a young Banastre Tarleton. 

John Sullivan

Crossing the Delaware

The additional troops allowed Washington to execute the plan he had been considering since crossing into Pennsylvania—a return across the Delaware River. With Howe's forces in control of New York City and most of the Jerseys, the situation was at its lowest point. He needed a daring move, so on Christmas night, Lieutenant James Monroe and Captain William Washington's company of Colonel Weedon's Third Virginia were steering their long Durham boats through the ice floes clogging the Delaware River. It was the night of the 25th and about as quiet as Washington could hope for, as his troops marched through the cold, windy night along icy wooded trails. Monroe had encountered a man named Riker along the way. He was initially thought to be a Loyalist, but it turned out he was a true patriot who then joined the ragged force heading toward the Hessian-occupied town of Trenton.

Crossing the Delaware

Christmas Surprise

At daylight on the 26th, the Continental forces launched an attack on the sleeping town. Sentries were pushed from their posts as the Virginians advanced from the north. Their target was a two-gun battery manned by Hessians, positioned to fire on the approaching troops of Nathanael Green's brigade. The town was thrown into chaos as sleepy musketeers and grenadiers stumbled from their quarters, shouldering their muskets.

Nathanael Greene

The pop, pop of desultory musket fire filled the cold morning air. It soon grew louder, causing Monroe's company to scatter for cover—they were the vanguard of their regiment and brigade. The Americans started to return fire, and more Continentals arrived on King Street. 

The boom of cannon from behind boosted their confidence. General Henry Knox's batteries were in action. Musket fire to the south also indicated that General Sullivan's brigades were attacking. But ahead stood that stubborn Hessian battery, ready to cut down the advancing column and stop the attack. 

American Artillery Opens Fire

The order came from Captain Washington, "Forward!" The company all rose together and moved forward at a trot, the men's fingers frozen to their muskets as the icy mix of sleet seared their faces and stung their eyes. The buzz of lead was all around them, and Captain Washington suddenly dropped to a knee, clutching his hands, which were streaming blood. Lieutenant Monroe suddenly took command.

William Washington

He charged forward with the company moving at double time, and soon, the Hessian gunners, who weren't shot or on the run, were surrendering their weapons and being marched to captivity. But not before a lead ball tore into Monroe's chest, staggering him and soaking his uniform in blood. Carried to an aid post where Washington was being treated, it was soon clear the ball had torn an artery—a mortal wound.

Monroe led the charge toward the Hessian guns

But fortune smiled on James Monroe as well as George Washington that morning. As it turned out, Riker—whose first name Monroe never learned—was a surgeon. And rare for those times, a highly competent surgeon. He managed to close the artery and prevent the future president from bleeding to death in a battle that resulted in no soldiers killed and only five wounded, including Monroe and Washington. He was promoted to captain for his gallantry.

Battles Lost and Won

Monroe recovered fully from his wound and performed capably at the Battle of Brandywine and Germantown in the fall of 1777. His success in those battles earned him a promotion to major and the appointment as aide-de-camp to General William Alexander on 20 November 1777. 

Major Monroe fought at the Battle of Monmouth on 28 June 1778, one of the fiercest battles of the war and the last major engagement in the North. However, Monroe, who was practically broke and unable to recruit troops, resigned from the Continental Army on 20 November. This was common; many Continental Army officers who served honorably went on to pursue business, return to farming, or enter politics. Alexander Hamilton is just one example.

Battle of Brandywine

Law and Politics

Back in civilian life, Monroe studied law under Governor Thomas Jefferson, a relationship that would influence their lives and the nation's future. When Charleston fell in 1781, Virginia planned to raise several new regiments, and Monroe was given the rank of lieutenant colonel, although he never saw combat.

Thomas Jefferson

His military career stagnated, but Monroe's political journey was rising—initially with a seat in the Virginia House of Delegates, then in the Confederation Congress. Later, he participated in the state constitutional convention. Like many notable Virginians (Patrick Henry, George Mason), he opposed the proposed constitution due to its centralized authority. Nonetheless, he took a seat in the new US Senate in 1790. 

Diplomacy

Monroe's international and diplomatic career began in 1794 when President George Washington appointed him US Envoy to France. His involvement in factional politics started three years later when he returned to Virginia and joined the anti-Federalist opposition organized by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. This Virginia triumvirate would deeply influence US politics and the future course of the new nation. 

James Madison

Monroe was elected Governor of Virginia in 1799. However, in 1802, President Jefferson appointed him Envoy to France to support Robert Livingston's negotiations with Napoleon Bonaparte over the Louisiana Territory, which the US bought from France the following year for 15 million dollars—doubling the size of the US. Afterwards, Monroe served as minister to Great Britain, where he negotiated a commercial treaty in 1806, which the US Senate rejected because it didn’t address the hot-button issue of the day, impressment.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A Second War with England

After another period in Virginia politics, Monroe served as President Madison's Secretary of State in 1811. Tensions with Great Britain at that time led to the war. The War of 1812 was going poorly, so in August 1814, Madison temporarily appointed him Secretary of War. The third member of the Virginia triumvirate, James Monroe, was elected the nation's fifth president in 1816—showing strong teamwork.

British Army Burns Washington in 1814

Chief Executive

The nation was expanding rapidly when Monroe took office, and a growing sense of American patriotism and exceptionalism, if not outright nationalism, was everywhere. During this so-called Era of Good Feelings, Monroe and his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, aimed to strengthen America's position on the global stage. A brief war in 1819 against the Florida Seminoles, fought successfully by General Andrew Jackson, resulted in the Spanish selling West Florida to the US in 1820, helping him secure a second term.

President James Monroe

The Era of Good Feelings

In 1819, James Monroe became the first American president since George Washington to tour the country for goodwill. The nation was expanding west into the Louisiana Territory, the war with Britain had ended, and America had stood on its own against the world's only superpower. The Spanish colonies in South America were breaking free from Spanish rule and building their own democracies. America appeared to be the model of the future. As the nation's 50th anniversary approached, the American experiment seemed headed toward a prosperous future.

President Washington

The Holy Alliance

Not all nations welcomed the success of American democracy and the collapse of the Spanish empire. At the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the autocratic countries Prussia, Austria, and Russia formed a political alliance called the Holy Alliance. Holy because they still believed their rulers' authority came from God—the divine right of kings. They now turned their attention to the Spanish colonies. This did not go unnoticed by Britain, which had its own interests in the New World and did not welcome outsiders.

Congress of Vienna

The Monroe Doctrine

In 1822, Monroe's administration officially recognized the newly independent countries of America: Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Chile, and Mexico, after they gained independence from Spain. The British approached Monroe with the idea of issuing a joint statement of the status quo ante in the New World, but when he discussed it with his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, Adams hesitated. Why shouldn't the US issue its own policy? After all, Britain was still a rival, and we had just fought a war with them. He offered to help draft a letter to Congress explaining that external powers should not interfere in the Americas' affairs—no new colonies. Drafted in 1823, it was made public in early 1824.

Crafting the Monroe Doctrine

Vive Lafayette

As all this unfolded, Monroe's administration chose to capitalize on the popularity of the last surviving general of the Continental Army, the Marquis de Lafayette. What better way to showcase American exceptionalism, mark the upcoming anniversary, honor a war hero, and send a political message to nations like the Holy Alliance? The year-long visit started in August 1824, coinciding with the election of John Quincy Adams, who took office after Monroe in 1825. 

General Lafayette's Visit was a Tour de Force

Final Years

The former planter, politician, soldier, and statesman retired to his estate outside Leesburg, Virginia, with his wife, Elizabeth (Kortright) Monroe. President John Quincy Adams and General Lafayette visited the couple shortly before Lafayette's return to France. They had plenty of memories to share. After all, both were wounded while serving America—and the young General Lafayette had also fought at Trenton, Brandywine, and Monmouth. 

Elizabeth (Kortright) Monroe

Ironically, the last member of the Virginia triumvirate moved to New York City after Elizabeth's death in 1830. He lived with his daughter and her family at 63 Prince Street—on Lafayette Square. James Monroe became the third president to die on Independence Day when he succumbed to heart failure and tuberculosis on July 4, 1831.

Noble Patriot

 Noble Patriot

The American War for Independence gained the attention of all the European powers, and even the nobility and royalty were, at least initially, enthralled by it as the embodiment of the ideals of The Age of Reason. It did not take long before many of the nobility and upper class were scrambling to join the effort to secure liberty. Soon, names like Steuben, Kosciusko, de Kalb, and Pulaski joined the ranks of the Continental Army. Each made his mark in the Glorious Cause, but none so much as Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch-Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette.

Major General Lafayette

Old Blood, Old Money

Lafayette was born into one of the oldest families in France's aristocracy on 6 September 1757. The young Lafayette had a troubled youth despite a rich lineage, wealth, and privilege. His father, Michel de Lafayette, was struck by a cannonball fighting the British at the Battle of Minden, leaving him an orphan and marquis at two. As was typical of his class, Lafayette was commissioned into a French royal musketeer regiment at thirteen. However, his actual leadership experience was limited to parade and garrison duties when not partaking of the pleasures at court.

Lafayette senior fell at Minden

He was early on engaged to Marie Adrienne Françoise, the daughter of a powerful Duc d'Ayen, whom he married at sixteen (she was two years younger). The arranged match also proved a love match, and despite many trials and tribulations, the pair stayed together until she died in 1807. In 1776, the young marquis received a commission as a captain of dragoons, which should have begun his climb up the French military hierarchy, but for events across the ocean.

A Young Idealist

Lafayette was well-read in the classics and the principles of the Enlightenment, and from an early age, hoped to make a difference for mankind. By 1776, the political friction in America had erupted into open rebellion against the King of England. Like so many others, he followed the events with interest. Unlike so many others, he decided to act on his principles, which he saw enshrined in the sentiments of The Declaration of Independence — he determined to throw his lot in with the Americans and strike a blow for liberty. Equality and fraternity would have to wait, however.

The Declaration of Independence inspired Lafayette 

An American Agent

But what to do? Silas Deane, an American politician from Connecticut, represented the American Continental Congress in Paris — in effect, he was an American agent. Many European officers approached Deane to solicit commissions in the Continental Army. Deane's job was to screen them and make referrals of those with bona fide military experience or who provided some other advantage to the American cause. Lafayette's youth and inexperience would have usually precluded a referral, but his pedigree and connections at court, combined with his evident enthusiasm, got him a referral.

Silas Deane

Outlaw

Lafayette's family, especially his powerful father-in-law, objected to the move. As did his wife. She was pregnant. Influenced by the Duc d'Ayen, the government also refused permission for Lafayette to travel, expressly forbidding it. At the time, Deane was negotiating secret assistance from the French government and overt support. The presence of such a nobleman fighting for America would alarm the British. But the headstrong idealist bucked authority and managed to sneak into Spain, where he eventually boarded the ship Victoire, loaded with ordnance for the American cause. King Louis XVI subsequently declared him an outlaw. How much of this was actual pique at his disobedience or to throw off the British is hard to say, but likely both.

Lafayette escaped France via a subterfuge

Coming to America

The nineteen-year-old marquis landed in South Carolina in 1777, accompanied by several officers, including Baron Johann de Kalb, a French nobleman who would give his life for the American cause. He then traveled to Philadelphia to claim his promised commission as a major general. Congress hesitated due to his youth and inexperience. Major general was the army's highest rank at the time, and only a few were serving, but because of his connections, they finally appointed him — without command.

Johann de Kalb

Meeting His Excellency

Lafayette met Washington for the first time at a reception held in Philadelphia in August 1777 when the commander-in-chief came to the capital to consult with Congress on military matters. The two shook hands in the receiving line and then met privately — bonding almost immediately. Washington was impressed by his enthusiasm and military bearing. He returned to camp with Washington, but his status was still unclear. Lafayette still expected a field command. Was his commission actual or honorary? Washington took him into his "military family" and made him a sort of senior advisor.

Meeting with Washington

First Battle, First Blood, First Winter

The youthful general's mettle was tested the following month at the Battle of Brandywine, where Lafayette received a leg wound while helping rally a regiment fleeing the field. His mentor was pleased. His gallantry earned him a small command. In late  November, he led a detachment of 300 infantry in a skirmish against a large force of the vaunted Hessians at Gloucester, New Jersey — repulsing the Germans. His enthusiasm and energy throughout the harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge and his willingness to suffer along with the rest of the army further endeared him to Washington. A father-son relationship had developed. The childless Washington and fatherless Lafayette had a unique bond.

Wounded at Brandywine

Warmth of Spring

As winter ebbed, the sun's rays warmed the earth, and both the Continental and British forces uncoiled from hibernation and began to stir. Lord George Germain had recalled General William Howe to London to be replaced by his number two, General Henry Clinton. A new strategy was in motion, and Germain ordered Clinton to abandon Philadelphia for the security of New York, as a chunk of his troops were being sent to protect British interests in the West Indies.

Major General William Howe

Aware of upcoming changes, General Washington sent with an even larger command, a division of 2,000 troops and five guns, to observe British movements in and out of Philadelphia. Lafayette deployed his division in the vicinity of Barren Hills, Pennsylvania. Howe had not yet departed and decided to thrash the upstart Frenchman before he left. He dispatched the formidable General James Grant with 5,000 men and fifteen guns to entrap Lafayette. A three-pronged maneuver by Grant had British and Hessian columns on three sides of Lafayette's command, but he saw the trap about to be sprung and wisely slipped away via a road he knew would evade British observation.

British grenadiers advancing at Barren Hills

Lafayette's ability to quickly assess a tactical situation maneuver to safety pleased Washington, who entrusted him with a more significant command the following month. By the end of June 1778, Howe was gone, and Clinton led the bulk of his army overland to NewYork, crossing the hot, humid fields of New Jersey with the Continental Army following. 

Foul Up and Success at Monmouth

At Monmouth Court House, the British paused for a rest. Not ready to commit to an all-out attack, Washington agreed to send a  force to strike Clinton's rear guard. When his second in command, General Charles Lee, demurred from leading the attack, Lafayette offered his services. Wahington accepted the offer, but the wily Lee decided he wanted the command after all and marched off with Lafayette.

Washington at Monmouth

When the Americans launched their attack, the British, rather than retreat as was hoped, turned and fought, then when reinforced, the British rear guard counterattacked. Faced with a stiff fight, Lee gave conflicting orders, causing chaos in the American ranks. Seeing the American line crumbling and confusion growing, Lafayette sent a message to Washington to urge him to ride forward and take command. Washington was incensed when he arrived and began rallying the troops and relieved Lee of command (in a famous confrontation). The line steadied, and the Continental Army fought toe toe-to-toe with the Britsh, the swirl of combat ending at dark with both sides sleeping on the line. The following day, Lafayette rose and awakened Washington. As the two generals peered across the misty fields at dawn, the Britsh had retreated.

Summer in Newport

Lafayette was given command of two brigades as part of General John Sullivan's hapless expedition to Rhode Island that summer. The taking of the vital port hinged on cooperation with the naval forces of France's admiral Charles-Hector Theodat, comte d'Estaing. One of Lafayette's tasks was to convince the obstinate d'Estaing to support the American effort, but d'Estaing demurred. On 9 August, Sullivan's land forces attacked the British without d'Estaing, who refused to place his ships in Narragansett Bay. A storm struck, scattering the French and British fleets, and the land force attack failed. Sullivan's northern army withdrew, with Lafayette playing a pivotal role in keeping it an orderly retreat.

Admiral d'Estaing

 Home for the Holidays

In January 1779, the young marquis went on furlough, returning to France to advocate for wider French involvement in the war. Lafayette was initially arrested after landing on French soil, but the king quickly pardoned him. He was received in Paris as a hero, a sort of rock star — King Louis actually promoted him to colonel in the French Army. 

Louis XVI

Things were different with France and Spain openly at war with Britain. Lafayette proposed a joint invasion of Britain with him in command. However, the Spanish ships did not arrive until August, and a British fleet of fast ships complicated the plan, which was eventually abandoned. 

The Francp-Spanish  naval invasion of Britain was canceled

So, Lafayette refocused on gaining more support for the American cause, collaborating with American Commissioner Benjamin Franklin to arrange French troops for North America. He also refocused on his family, and in December, Adrienne gave birth to a son, whom he proudly named George Washington Lafayette. 

Benjamin Franklin

Meanwhile, the king had agreed to send more forces to America. He dispatched Lafayette to return with news of General Jean-Baptiste,comte de Rochambeau's impending arrival with some 6,000 men. Lafayette dutifully sailed from Rochefort to America aboard the frigate Hermione, arriving in Boston on 27 April 1780.

Fighting for Liberty

Washington, the commander-in-chief of both nation's forces, used Lafayette as a high-level liaison between Rochambeau and himself. Little was accomplished during the remainder of 1780. Washington and Rochambeau's forces postured while the generals pondered and planned. Most of the fighting was taking place in the Carolinas, where the British launched a successful invasion but then got tied down, trying to hold on to what they grabbed. 

General Rochambeau

But by 1781, trouble and opportunity beckoned in the warmer climes of Virginia when General Charles Cornwallis marched north from the Carolinas to establish firm British control over the Old Dominion in a desperate ploy to reshape the balance of power. British forces under Generals William Phillips and Benedict Arnold ( the same) based out of Portsmouth had advanced as far as the new capital in Richmond and raided as far as Charlottesville. 

British Brigadier General Benedict Arnold

General Friedrich von Steuben's small detachment of Virginia militia did what they could to block and harass. Still, it was not enough, and now the impending arrival of another army from the Carolinas put von Steuben and Washington's home state at grave risk. 

The Old Dominion

But with risk came opportunity. So, in response, Washington sent Lafayette to Virginia to support and take command of all American forces. Lafayette spent several weeks sparring with Cornwallis around Richmond and Petersburg. The canny veteran, Cornwallis, made several efforts to overpower the young general. But  Lafayette was up to the task. 

Lafayette led the way in the Old Dominion

At Green Spring on 6 July 1781, he moved quickly to support the beleaguered forces under General Anthony Wayne. Cornwallis was soon boxed into the Virginia peninsula, where Lafayette pushed him slowly toward Williamsburg and the supposed refuge on the York River. Tipped off by an African-American spy named James Armistead,  the young marquis carefully shadowed Cornwallis to Yorktown and helped trap him in his works. 

Yorktown

By August, Cornwallis had established his base at Yorktown, and the marquis positioned his forces on Malvern Hill, placing guns zeroed in on the British. Cornwallis's tired and now disease-ridden army waited for supplies and reinforcement from or evacuation to New York. Thanks to the French fleet, it would come too late for him and his men.

Major General Charles Cornwallis

Washington and Rochambeau's forces converged on Williamsburg after force marching from New York. Lafayette met them and helped plan the final phase of the campaign — besieging Yorktown. Time was critical as the weather would allow the French navy to linger only a few more weeks. 

Storming the Redoubt

Lafayette commanded the Light Infantry Division during the siege and was in overall command of the French and American forces that stormed Redoubts Nine and Ten, the final nail in the British coffin. On 19 October 1781, Cornwallis's army grounded arms and marched into captivity. The war would not end for two long years, but most major combat on land had ended.

Surrender at Yorktown

What Next?

The British still clung stubbornly to garrisons throughout the Carolinas and firmly held Savannah, Georgia. Lafayette offered to command forces to capture them, but Washington was confident in Major General Nathanael Green's handling of the South. Besides, Lafayette would prove more valuable as an advocate for more naval and monetary support from France.

General Nathanael Greene

Lafayette traveled north to Philadelphia, where Congress appointed him its advisor to the commissioners in Europe, Ben Franklin (Paris), John Jay (Madrid), and John Adams (The Hague), and sent a letter of commendation for the marquis to the King of France.

Hero of Two Worlds

On 18 December 1781, the young hero of two worlds sailed from Boston for France. Everywhere welcomed the hero, Lafayette had an audience with the king at the Palace of Versailles on 22 January 1782. Louis XVI named him maréchal de camp and a Knight of the Order of Saint Louis. Lafayette went to work helping plan a Spanish-French expedition against the West Indies as the war was now a world war and, despite Yorktown, far from over. He also helped advise the negotiations that led to The Treaty of Paris in 1783.

Treaty of Paris signing

But possibly Lafayette's greatest triumph and joy was reuniting with his family. He was there for the birth of his daughter, Marie Antoinette Virginie Motier de la Fayette, on 17 September 1782. Prospects for the marquis and his family were bright. Wealth, nobility, military success, and fame glorified him. Freedom had triumphed in the New World. Now, the young idealist sought ways to replicate the same in the Old World.