The French Fox

Although action and intrigue are the hallmarks of the Yankee Doodle Spies series, the war was, in fact, mainly won through the latter. Intrigue, fortified by no small dose of guile, enabled the rebel American colonies to throw off the yoke of the British Empire. They also received a little help from their friends, particularly a Frenchman who played the great game of international diplomacy through a mix of statesmanship, espionage, and deception. 

Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes

 Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, was a shrewd statesman who orchestrated a complex diplomatic strategy against France’s despised enemy, Great Britain. He maintained a calm and accommodating demeanor with his opponents and even kept his friends and allies on their toes.

Burgundian Roots

It is almost ironic that this relentless foe of Britain originated from an ancient ally of the English and an adversary of France, the Grand Duchy of Burgundy. However, when Charles Gravier was born in Dijon on a chilly December day in 1719, the region was merely a province of France. Gravier’s father was a local magistrate, respectable but not particularly high in the French social hierarchy.

Dijon, Capital of Burgundy

Following in his father’s footsteps, young Charles studied law. Eschewing the military or clergy that ensnared so many sons of the elites, he entered the French diplomatic service at the age of twenty. Soon, his patience, intellect, and knack for intrigue set him on a lifetime trajectory that would change the world.

A Diplomat’s Rise

 Vergennes’ early posts provided the training of a diplomat and a spy. His apprenticeship began in Lisbon in 1740 during the heated years of the War of the Austrian Succession. He learned to read a room, assessing the strengths and weaknesses of couriers and diplomats—and their true intentions.  Postings in Bavaria and the Palatinate followed. More challenging was the 1755 plum posting as ambassador to Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), where the Ottomans and diplomats of the Russian Empire tested his wiles.

Istanbul

Experience in the Byzantine world of the formerly Byzantine Ottoman Empire prepared him for later challenges, like Sweden in 1768. There, he faced his Russian adversaries once more, employing a mix of charm, persuasion, espionage, and gold to keep the court’s pro-French party in power and the Swedes who favored Catherine the Great's Russia out. 

Gravier: Ambassador to the Sublime Porte

These posts schooled Vergennes in the art of high (and low) diplomacy, and foreshadowed what the mastermind could do when he reached the next level in the diplomatic corps.

Catherine the Great, Czarina of Russia

The next level emerged when Louis XVI ascended to the throne in 1774. Now a seasoned diplomat, Gravier would take on the challenge of a lifetime, guiding a France weakened by the Seven Years' War back to the center of the world stage as foreign minister. A year later, events across the ocean would provide that opportunity.

Exploiting Revolution

In the spring of 1775, the slow-burning insurrection in the American colonies erupted into a powder keg of revolutionary warfare. Even from far-off Versailles, the canny Vergennes could smell opportunity, if not the gun smoke. The catastrophic treaty ending the Seven Years’ War had torn away France’s most valued colonies—Canada was gone, India had been diminished, the West Indies islands were lost, West Africa had been lost to Britain, and Louisiana was given to Spain as compensation. France might not regain any of its lost colonies, but it sought revenge. The prickly American colonists now allowed Vergennes to bleed Britain dry.

Action at Lexington Brings War to America

Vergennes was no friend of liberty. He played a power game, using the Yankees as his baseball bat. While Britain’s army and navy were bogged down, France had a chance to regain its power and prestige. He dispatched agents to investigate the rebels. Were they tough enough to endure? Could they fight the world’s most powerful military? Vergennes wanted answers before he risked his nation.

Black Operations

When America’s first envoy, Silas Deane, turned up in Paris in 1776, with his hand out, looking for aid. Vergennes kept it low—he was not ready to connect France to the rebellion. But a covert op might buy him time. When Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a playwright with a sideline in skullduggery, approached him with a secret scheme to help America (and harm the Anglais), Vergennes consented.  With Vergennes looking the other way, he set up a fake trading outfit called Roderigue Hortalez et Cie. This front company shipped muskets, powder, and cannons across the ocean with tobacco and other cash crops sailing to France, where they'd sell and the profits then used to replace the French munitions and ordnance.  At the same time, France had plausible deniability (it was a Spanish firm). The ports of France became smuggling hubs, with crates marked for “private merchants” ignored by French customs officials.  

Beaumarchais: Playwright and Schemer

Enter Doctor Franklin

The stakes grew higher when the most famous American in the world, Benjamin Franklin, wandered into Paris in December 1776. Franklin’s fur cap and homespun wit charmed and disarmed everyone from salon ladies to shopkeepers. Vergennes wisely let Franklin-mania work the crowd but kept the serious business behind closed doors. Despite Franklin's charm offensive, Gravier remained adamant. He would not risk an open alliance until the Americans produced a major battlefield victory.

Benjamin Franklin

 Turning Point

That came in October 1777. A British invasion from Canada was smashed in two pitched battles, resulting in the surrender of the British at Saratoga, New York. Paris was a blaze when word of the triumph arrived. For his part, Vergennes now had proof of success and began coaxing the still-antsy King Louis XVI to throw in with the American cause officially.

Turning Point: Saratoga Surrender

On 6 February 1778, France and the United States signed two treaties. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce primarily aimed to promote trade and commercial relations between the two nations. The Treaty of Alliance established military cooperation against Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. Just like that, France was at war with Britain, and Vergennes was all in. But the ever-cautious King Louis delayed a public proclamation until Late March.

Signing the Treaty of Amity

This war would be expensive, and Vergennes secretly pursued support from Spain and the Netherlands. Despite diplomatic and secret maneuverings, Spain did not join until 1779, with the stated goal of reclaiming lands lost to the British, specifically West Florida and Gibraltar, rather than aiding the upstart Protestant rebels. Although they had been secretly lending to the Americans, the Dutch did not join until 1780. Vergennes’ diplomatic tour de force had finally paid off.

City of Spies

Paris during the Revolution rivaled Cold War-era Berlin as a hub of intrigue. Spies lurked in every tavern and salon, the British sniffing out American plans, the French tracking British agents, and Spain’s agents gathering on behalf of His Catholic Majesty. Vergennes’s counterintelligence was everywhere: surveilling diplomats, intercepting letters, and planting false leads. One wolf in sheep’s clothing was Edward Bancroft, Franklin’s secretary, who was feeding secrets to London. Despite his agents’ best efforts, Vergennes did not uncover Bancroft’s treachery, which stayed hidden till later. Some believe Franklin was in on the treachery and exploited it.

Spy: Edward Bancroft

France at War

Versailles was replete with naysayers on the alliance (perhaps persuaded with British gold), and they yapped at the always wobbly Louis. However, the Foreign Minister was now fully aligned with the Americans, ensuring that the flow of aid never stopped. But America’s real need was French military might, especially its navy. Despite some early fits and starts, when it came, it proved decisive.

Chesapeake: The French Fleet Played a Decisive Role

Now was the time for the vengeance Vergennes struggled so long to achieve.  Troops and ships sailed to the New World to join the Americans and exact that vengeance. Franco-American efforts faltered at Newport, Rhode Island, and Savannah, Georgia. Still, the 1781 Yorktown campaign, where French troops and ships under Rochambeau and de Grasse sealed Cornwallis's troops on the York River in tidewater Virginia, was the brainchild of Vergennes.

A Separate Peace

The surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown convinced the British that the game was over. But what they could not win on land and sea, they would try to win at the peace table. The spy-versus-spy atmosphere in Paris intensified further when the British and American peace commissioners began sparring over the details, such as boundaries, fishing rights, trading rights, western land ownership, and Indian affairs.

French Support Made Yorktown Possible

Vergennes worked to align the interests of France, Spain (a French ally, not an American one), and the United States during peace negotiations. He pushed for a unified approach to ensure that the Americans coordinated with French interests.  However, the Americans sometimes acted independently, to Vergennes' frustration.

Peace of Paris

Vergennes spent most of his time on the broader peace process. The Treaty of Paris was part of a series of agreements collectively known as the Peace of Paris. That resolved the global conflicts among Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands. He negotiated terms for France, securing minor territorial gains (like Tobago and parts of Senegal) and protecting French interests in the West Indies and India.

Celebrating the Treaty of Peace with Britain in Paris

Vergennes was leery of American commissioners skirting French guidance.  And with good reason. They signed a preliminary peace agreement with Britain in November 1782 without consulting France fully and violating the terms of the 1778 alliance. Despite this, Vergennes accepted the outcome, recognizing that American independence aligned with France’s overall goal of weakening Britain. Vergennes signed his own treaty with Britain the following year.

Cost of Empire

Vergennes' service came at a cost. In 1781, King Louis appointed him as his Chief Minister, combining the roles of Foreign Minister and Prime Minister. Long days and nights of toil and the pressure of orchestrating financial, diplomatic, intelligence, and even military affairs strained him mentally and physically to the point where, on February 13, 1787, he keeled over at 67. He passed away just as France’s war debts started fueling talk of revolution. Some say Vergennes’ great gamble on America bankrupted France, which eventually led to the French Revolution in 1789. 

But hindsight is fifty-fifty. Charles Gravier’s goal was to check British hegemony and restore French glory. To that end, he succeeded. As for the French Revolution? Even the greatest and most perceptive minds cannot see the future. Who in 1778 would have thought King Louis's support for America would ultimately result in a trip to the guillotine? But one might speculate that with him guiding the vacillating King Louis, the nation and the monarchy might have avoided the chaos of the French Revolution and the carnage that it brought to France and the world.

King Louis XVI

Americans owe a debt to Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes—the man who viewed a ragged revolution as France’s opportunity. His cunning and insight were instrumental in America’s founding alongside the Minutemen and Continentals. Lauded neither in France nor America, the diplomat from Dijon played a pivotal role in the birth of a nation and changing the world like few others have.

Alliance Rosette Worn By Continental Army Officers

 

 

 

 

Lord in the Shadows

In the waning years of the 18th century, as the fires of rebellion blazed across the Atlantic, William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, stood at the apex of Britain’s clandestine war. From his unassuming office in London, hidden behind the façade of bureaucratic mundanity, Eden orchestrated a web of espionage that stretched from the drawing rooms of Westminster to the muddy battlefields of the American colonies. He was not a man of the sword, but of the quill and the whisper, a master of secrets whose name was known only to a select few, yet whose influence shaped the course of empires.

Privileged Youth

Born in 1744, the son of a Durham baronet, William Eden’s early life was one of privilege and education. He became a legal scholar at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1771, he published Principles of Penal Law and became a recognized authority on commercial and economic questions. Yet his keen mind for strategy drew him into the shadowy world of intelligence. By the time the American colonies began their murmurs of discontent, Eden had already proven his worth in diplomatic circles, but it was his appointment as the head of the British Secret Service in 1776 that would define his legacy.

Eton College

Spy Master

The American War for Independence was not just a war of battles and maneuvers but also an intelligence war. Eden understood this better than most. While Secretary of State for the Colonies Lord George Germain plotted grand strategy and generals like Sir William Howe and Lord Charles Cornwallis planned campaigns, Eden waged a silent war, fought with coded letters, double agents, and quiet betrayals. His office, tucked away in a nondescript building near St. James’s, was a nerve center of espionage. Maps of the colonies, intercepted dispatches, and lists of suspected rebel sympathizers and agents lay stacked on his desk. Each provided a clue in the vast canvas of rebellion he sought to undo. To accomplish this, the intelligence budget soared to some £200,000 during this period! That’s about £40,706,380 in 2025 money, adjusted for inflation.

George Germain

Reading “Traffic”

Eden began his mornings reviewing reports from his network of spies, many of whom operated under the cover of merchants, clergymen, or even Loyalist sympathizers in the colonies. Spies embedded deep within the Continental Army could feed details of troop movements and supply shortages that would make their way to London. Spies in the rebel capital worked in the social circles of Philadelphia and developed political information through elicitation and observation. Eden read dispatches with a meticulous eye, his quill scratching notes in the margins, decoding the hidden meanings behind their carefully chosen words.

 

Reading Traffic

The Cocktail Party Circuit

Eden’s evenings were spent in the company of the powerful, attending dinners and balls where the fate of the empire was often decided over port and cigars. He was a master of subtlety, his conversations laced with double meanings, his questions probing yet innocuous. At one such gathering, hosted by Lord North, Eden overheard a whispered conversation between two French diplomats, hinting at their plans to escalate support for the rebels. The next day, a coded message was dispatched to a British agent in Paris, tasked with uncovering the details of the French plot.

Diplomats Sharing Confidences

Politico & Envoy

In 1778, Eden, as a Member of Parliament, introduced an Act to improve the treatment of prisoners of war, which caused some controversy as American captives were often regarded as traitors, not war prisoners. He also organized, arranged, and accompanied the Earl of Carlisle as a commissioner to North America in a failed attempt to end the American War of Independence through negotiation. On his return in 1779, he published his widely read Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle.  This work discussed the ongoing war with the American colonies, France, and Spain, advocating for continued military efforts to crush colonial resistance. Eden also examines public debts, credit, and supply-raising methods, alongside Ireland’s push for free trade, reflecting on economic and imperial policies.

The Earl of Carlisle

A Spy’s Home Life

Yet, for all his successes, Eden was not immune to the weight of his responsibilities. The war was a personal and political struggle, and the constant stream of betrayals, failures, and losses took their toll. He wed Eleanor Elliot, of the influential Elliot family.  She and their six sons and eight daughters provided some solace, but even in the quiet moments at home, his mind was never far from the war. Eden would sit by the fire, a glass of Madeira in hand, his eyes fixed on the flames as he pondered the next move in the deadly game of chess he played with the rebels.

Eden's First Daughter, Eleanor Agnes

The Great Game

But Eden’s most significant challenge was collecting intelligence in the one place the war would be won or lost—Paris. The British orchestrated intelligence operations against the American commissioners, the French government, and the Spanish and Dutch representatives. While British diplomats and agents were also active in all the major European capitals, Paris was the political center of gravity in the game being played out. Spies were recruited and “run” against all parties, with the American Commission in Passy and Benjamin Franklin himself a target. His agents spread disinformation to undermine French confidence in the American cause or delay their military commitments, though with limited success given France’s strategic commitment.

Benjamin Franklin

Eden tracked negotiations between French Foreign Minister Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, and American representatives like Benjamin Franklin. The goal was to influence the French and Spanish from officially joining the Americans in war with Britain. But in 1778, France threw her hat into the ring and signed a formal treaty of Amity and Alliance with the United States. Britain did manage to slow Spain’s entry into the conflict, but eventually that too would fail.

Spies Among Us

One of the darkest moments of Eden’s tenure came in 1781, as the war neared its climax. The British surrender at Yorktown was a blow to the army and Eden’s carefully constructed network. Many of his agents were exposed or captured, their identities betrayed by a mole within the Secret Service itself. Eden’s investigation into the breach was ruthless; his interrogations were conducted in the cold, stone-walled chambers beneath his office. The traitor, a junior clerk with gambling debts and a taste for French gold, was quietly dealt with, his fate sealed in a manner that left no trace.

Surrender at Yorktown

Managing Defeat

Once defeat was inevitable, the British went to work managing it. Eden’s role shifted from espionage to diplomacy. In 1783, he was appointed as one of the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris, tasked with salvaging what he could from the wreckage of Britain’s colonial ambitions. He approached the negotiations with the same cold pragmatism that had defined his intelligence work, securing favorable terms for Britain despite losing the colonies. For Eden, it was not a defeat but a strategic retreat, a chance to preserve the empire’s strength for future battles along the lines outlined in his Letters to the Earl of Carlisle.

Treaty of Paris Negotiations

Spy Turned Statesman

In the following years, Eden continued his excellent service as a member of Parliament, a diplomat, and Governor-General of Ireland. In 1789, William Eden was raised to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Auckland. In 1793, he retired from public service but was further honored when he was raised to the Peerage of Great Britain as Baron Auckland, of West Auckland in the County of Durham. But his time as the head of the Secret Service remained his defining chapter—and few knew of it. Eden was the silent architect of Britain’s covert resistance, the man who had fought not with a sword but with secrets, wielding information like a blade in the dark.  

William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland

William Eden died on 28 May 1814 at 69 in Beckenham, Kent. The 1^st Baron Auckland remains the shadow warlord who had guarded Britain through its darkest hour. Despite his public honors, the real hallmark of his life was duty and sacrifice as the silent watcher who had stood between order and chaos, waging unseen battles that shaped the course of history.

 

The Sailing Irishman

This special Saint Patrick's Day installment celebrates Commodore John Barry: The Irish lad who became the father of the US Navy.

John Barry

1745—Ireland. In a small tenant farm along a windswept coastline in County Wexford, a boy named John Barry is born into a family of poor Catholic farmers. Life under the English penal laws ground Irish spirits into the sod. Like many Irish families, the threat of eviction always loomed, and one day, the landlord forced them off their meager piece of land. Homeless, the Barrys moved to the rugged seaside village of Rosslare. The luck of the Irish—hardly, but it did offer young Barry a way out. He learned the ropes on his uncle’s fishing skiff, and sailing it through choppy waves was the lad’s first call of the sea. Who could predict that someday he’d make the Royal Navy tremble at his name and build what would eventually become the world’s most powerful navy?

Cabin Boy to Captain

Barry’s no stranger to hard knocks. As a lad, he barely had shoes, but he’s got grit. By his teens, he was aboard ships, starting as a cabin boy—fetching water, scrubbing decks, and dodging the mate’s boot. The sea is a brutal school, but Barry is a quick study. With broad shoulders and a cool head that marked him as a natural leader, he quickly climbed the ranks. The 1760s found him in Philadelphia, a bustling port on the Delaware River, becoming wealthy through trade. By twenty-one, Barry was a merchant shipmaster, captaining vessels for big names like Reese Meredith. With his impressive height—over six feet—he was burly, yet calm and composed even in raging storms and churning seas. Soon, he was in high demand as a skipper. “Big John” Barry was the man owners wanted at the helm of their ships.

Citizen of Philadelphia

He spends years hauling cargo across the Atlantic, dodging icebergs and setting speed records—such as the fastest day of sailing in the century aboard the prestigious Black Prince. By the 1770s, John Barry had reached the pinnacle of his fortunes. However, storm clouds were gathering on the horizon—tension between the colonies and British authorities. Soon, Barry would exchange merchant manifests for cannonballs.

Merchant Captain at Sea

From Merchant Navy to the Continental Navy

When the First Continental Congress gathered in 1774, Barry was already friends with future Revolutionary War financier Robert Morris. When the Second Continental Congress opted to create a navy in 1775 using merchant vessels, Barry’s Black Prince was transformed into the USS Alfred, which raised the Grand Union flag—America’s first naval ensign. Barry advocated for a naval command and was appointed captain of the USS Lexington, a 14-gun brig, that December.

Command of USS Lexington

He was the first army or navy officer to receive a Continental commission, signed by none other than John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, on March 14, 1776. History is about to be made!

First Fight

Barry’s first action occurs on April 7, 1776, off the Virginia Capes. Barry proves his resolve. The Lexington engages with the British tender Edward, a spirited ship serving HMS Liverpool. Broadsides are exchanged—cannonballs flying, wood splintering—for an hour and twenty minutes. Cool as ever, Barry shows his fortitude, issuing orders, and when the smoke clears, Edward strikes her colors—the first British ship captured by a Continental vessel. Barry sails his prize into Philadelphia—the American navy’s first!

Fighting Captain

Warrior on Land and Sea

By late 1776, the Cause was at its lowest point. Washington’s dwindling army was reeling from New York, retreating through New Jersey. What could Barry do? His next assigned ship, the frigate Effingham, was still in the shipyard. Eager to join the fight, he gathers sailors, marines, and heavy artillery, forms an ad hoc naval brigade, and marches to Washington’s aid. At Trenton, his crew transports artillery through snow and ice, pounding the Hessian lines. His brigade performs again at Princeton. Washington personally thanked Barry before charging him with escorting wounded prisoners to British General Cornwallis under a flag of truce. A fighting Irishman on land or sea!

Commanding Guns at Trenton

Back on the water in 1777, Barry commanded the brig USS Delaware and began raiding British shipping in the river of the same name. Like shooting ducks in a barrel for the seasoned naval leader, he took over twenty prizes, including the armed schooner Kitty. In 1778, Barry took command of the frigate Raleigh, seizing three more prizes before she ran aground during a skirmish with British warships. Barry was forced to scuttle his ship but quickly took command of another vessel, the USS Alliance, the fleet’s fastest ship. In 1780, he was given a secret mission: to take Colonel John Laurens to France. That mission—obtaining loans and supplies—helped secure Washington’s victory at Yorktown in October 1781. To top it off, Barry captured a few British prizes on the return trip—just because he could.

Secret Mission to France

The Final Fights

Barry’s most brutal fight occurred on 29 May 1781. Standing tall on the quarterdeck of the Alliance, he faced the struggle of his life. Two British sloops, the HMS Atalanta and HMS Trepassey, pounced on him. All hell broke loose as they closed in—broadsides shredding sails, grapeshot tearing through flesh. Barry sustained an awful wound when a piece of grapeshot tore through his shoulder. He remained at his station, rallying his crew and shouting commands, but the "effusion" of blood eventually forced him below deck. Ultimately, both British warships struck their colors—a double surrender. Now, even British captains concede that he’s an American sea captain to reckon with.

Taking on a Brace of Warships

Fittingly, on 10 March 1783, Barry fought the war’s last naval battle off Cape Canaveral. His Alliance squared off against HMS Sybille and a squadron. Barry is in a bind as he is convoying the Duc de Lauzane, loaded with cash and supplies from the West Indies. Barry outguns Sybille, but the rest of the squadron is on him. He abandons this newly won prize, Sybille, opting to save the convoy and get Duc de Lauzane safely to port. With the war coming to a close, Barry had made his mark as a fighting captain.

Final Fight

Father of the Navy

Our Celtic commodore quickly returned to merchant sailing, making a historic voyage to China in 1787—opening trade with the “reclusive empire.” However, in 1794, with the U.S. Navy forming under the Naval Act, Barry was asked to serve his nation once more—as its first commodore! President Washington himself presented Barry Naval Commission Number One. Barry began overseeing the construction of the 44-gun frigate USS United States, his flagship.

USS United States

During the Quasi-War with France (1798–1801), Barry returned to work, capturing French merchantmen in the West Indies while training the next generation of naval leaders—future legends like Stephen Decatur and Richard Dale.

The Final Watch

Despite increasingly worsening asthma, Barry continued to sail. But on 6 March 1803, United States slides into port with Barry on the quarterdeck for the last time—his sea duty done.  He may have given up his ship, but not the Navy, staying on as its head until he died on 13 September 1803 at his Strawberry Hill home near Philadelphia. The first commodore was buried with full honors at St. Mary’s Churchyard. While happily married, Barry died childless. But his legacy lives in the Navy he shaped and with the men he mentored.

John Barry Gravesite

Legacy of a Legend

Some random shots about John Barry: Author of a signal book for better fleet communication, early advocate for a standalone Navy Department (it happened in 1798). Barry was a man of God—he began each day with a Bible reading. He was a brilliant leader of men—he cared for his crew, keeping them fed and fit. Wise practitioner of discipline— quelled three mutinies with a firm hand and a fair heart, earning lasting loyalty from his men.

Barry's Advocacy Paid Off in 1798

Many tributes came: four destroyers were named USS Barry, Barry statues stand in Wexford and D.C., and the Commodore Barry Bridge. Rhode Island celebrates September 13 as “Commodore John Barry Day.”

John Barry statue in Wexford, Ireland

Who's the Best?

Though not as well-known as John Paul Jones, Barry excelled in war and peace. Starting as an Irish cabin boy and rising to American commodore, he fought on land and sea, built a navy from the ground up, and created a blueprint for courage. Historians often refer to John Barry as the “Father of the American Navy,” a title many attribute to John Paul Jones. Jones's post-Rev War contributions were uneven, with him accepting a commission in Czarina Catherine the Great's navy (see my blog, Yankee Doodle in the Crimea). However, unlike Jones, Barry's legacy includes longevity and institution-building. Jones had flair, while Barry made a lasting impact.

John Paul Jones as Russian Admiral

Next time you hear “I have not yet begun to fight,” tip your hat to Jones—but raise a glass to the quiet giant who led the Revolution to victory and beyond. Fair winds to you, Commodore Barry. 

John Barry in His Office

Book Review: Gone for A Soldier

Avellina Balestri's "All Ye That Pass By: Book 1: Gone for a Soldier" is a significant addition to historical fiction. It focuses not merely on facts, deeds, and battles but also on the nuanced interplay between faith, identity, and the tumult of war in the late 18th century. 

Historical Background

With the backdrop of the French and Indian War and the American Revolution, "Gone for a Soldier" brings to life the lesser-told stories of British Loyalists and the Catholic recusants in England. The novel's protagonist, Edmund Southworth, is a Catholic in a time when his faith could lead to ostracism or worse, providing a unique perspective on the conflict between personal belief and societal expectations. Balestri uses this setting to delve into the complexities of identity during a time of upheaval, where allegiances were often torn between country, faith, and family. All this is set against the vast canvas of Canada and New York during the failed British Saratoga campaign.

The Players

The fictional English Catholic Edmund Southworth stands at the heart of the narrative, embodying the conflict of his era. His journey from a boy intrigued by military life to a man grappling with the contradictions of his Catholic faith and his duty as a soldier is portrayed with depth and sensitivity. Balestri's character development shows Edmund's internal conflicts, moments of doubt, and eventual growth into a figure of moral strength. Generals John Burgoyne, Simon Fraser, and other key officers interact across the vast canvas of this work, and the author catches their personalities just right. Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne has a unique role as Edmund's mentor.

General John Burgoyne

Other characters, such as Edmund's Protestant friends, military figures from the British army, and even historical personalities such as King George III, are made real, building a grand and intimate narrative. Her characters serve not just as foils to Edmund but also as mirrors to society's varied perspectives on religion, politics, and war.

A Tapestry of Conflict

The novel explores several themes, with faith and loyalty being central. Balestri examines how these concepts intersect with personal identity and societal roles. Edmund's Catholic faith is a constant undercurrent, influencing his decisions, interactions, and perception of the war. This exploration of faith in a time of conflict adds a layer of philosophical inquiry to the narrative, questioning how one reconciles personal beliefs with the demands of war.

Death of Simon Fraser

Loyalty is another theme intricately woven into the plot. Edmund's loyalty to his faith, king, and comrades in arms often clashes, providing a rich ground for character development and ethical discourse. The novel also subtly critiques the notion of loyalty to a nation or cause when that loyalty might conflict with one's moral or spiritual beliefs.

A Bit of the Bard

Balestri's prose is both lyrical and precise, capturing the essence of the 18th-century setting while maintaining a pace that keeps the reader engaged. The narrative style is reflective, often pausing to ponder the implications of actions and the nature of human endeavor, which suits the novel's introspective themes. Readers who demand rich historical detail with engaging character interactions and plot developments will enjoy this. As John Burgoyne was a playwright himself, there are many references to Shakespeare's work.

The Bard

Cultural and Educational Impact

"All Ye That Pass By: Book 1: Gone for a Soldier" does not just entertain; it educates. Besides being a significant Revolutionary War tale, by focusing on a Catholic perspective during a pivotal time in British and American history, Balestri fills a gap in historical fiction where religious minorities' experiences during colonial conflicts are often overlooked. This novel is a valuable resource for educators looking to give students a more rounded view of the historical period.

Burgoyne Surrenders at Saratoga

Why Read?

"All Ye That Pass By: Book 1: Gone for a Soldier" is a commendable piece of historical fiction that combines a passion for history with a profound understanding of the human condition. It challenges readers to think about loyalty, faith, and identity in ways that are still relevant today. This work gives readers a rich tapestry of historical events viewed through an intensely personal narrative lens, compellingly exploring human resilience, loyalty, and the quest for spiritual and personal truth. 

This book is for anyone interested in the intersection of faith and war (and who isn't?) or readers seeking a different perspective on the Revolutionary War period. It is a testament to Balestri's skill in weaving history into a compelling narrative, making readers not just spectators but participants in Edmund Southworth's moral and spiritual journey. We await a future book to learn where his journey takes him.

Island in the Sun

 Special Mission

Large puffs of white moving casually with the trade winds highlighted the bright blue November sky over Oranje Bay. Isaiah Robinson, captain of the 14-gun brig Andrea Doria, put his spyglass to his eye. Ahead were the twin peaks with verdant sides that rose rapidly from the sandy shore, on which stood the Dutch trading port city of Oranjestad. He shifted his glass to the large stone fort that sat astride the bluffs overlooking the fort and anchorage that was his destination.

“How will they receive us, sir?” asked a young midshipman standing at his side. The United States declared independence from Britain earlier that summer but had not received diplomatic recognition.

“We shall know soon enough, Mister Sewall,” replied Robinson.

Entering the Harbor at Sint Eustatius

The First Salute

The Andrea Doria sailed briskly and then lazily toward the harbor, cluttered with trading ships throughout the New World and Europe. Sint Eustatius, part of the Dutch Antilles, was a duty-free port that, since its occupation by the Dutch West Indies Trading Company in the early 17^th century, was a hub for maritime trade—both legal and illicit. Tobacco, rice, cotton, and rum passed through her, as she was the hub of a global supply chain that served two hemispheres. But the port was sadly the transit point for the worst kind of trade, human chattel.

Robinson snapped his glass shut and nodded to the Gunners Mate. “Fire the salute!”

Thirteen of the fourteen barrels flashed and belched smoke—one for each state. Andrea Doria had formally announced her arrival. Robinson wondered, What will be their reply?

From his perch at the fort, the governor of the island, Johannes de Graaf, watched the salvo fired by the brig below. He turned to the battery commander and doffed his plumed hat. A salvo of eleven guns erupted, belching a cloud of gun smoke above the harbor.

Captain Robinson smiled in satisfaction. “The signal of a returned salute is two guns less than the saluted.”

“What does it mean, sir?” asked Sewall.

Robinson did not reply to the young officer but turned to the entire crew. “The United Netherlands recognizes us as a sovereign nation!”

The crew erupted in a long round of “Huzzahs” as the Andrea Doria made its way to safe harbor.

The First Salute - Andrea Doria

Island in the Sun

I slightly changed my promise to dedicate the next few editions of the Yankee Doodle Spies blog to characters in the series’ next novel, The Reluctant Spy. Instead, we will profile a place that plays a significant role in the unfolding of this adventure tale. This unique place is an island set in the West Indies. An island that played an essential part throughout the American Revolution and an important part in the fifth book in the Yankee Doodle Spies series, The Cavalier Spy. And as those who read it are aware—this island is Sint (Saint) Eustatius, sometimes called Statia.

Governor Johannes de Graaf

Revolutionary Role

Sint Eustatius’s role in the American struggle for independence did not end with that “first salute.” In fact, Governor de Graaf welcomed the crew, and Robinson provided him a copy of the Declaration of Independence and a letter written in Hebrew, destined for the Jewish merchants in the Netherlands. Sint Eustatius had many Jewish settlers who helped make the island the trading and banking hub that connected the Old World with the New.

The Declaration of Independence

Lively and Prosperous

When Robinson and his crew took to shore, they found a thriving port town with hundreds of storehouses, shops, inns, taverns, and bordellos. The storehouses were jammed with goods from the region’s islands – coffee, cocoa, and rice plus rice, tobacco, and wood from North America and finished products from Europe. The bay was jammed with ships from every corner of the world, waiting to unload or take cargo on board. The little island, a “duty-free” port, was as busy as Amsterdam’s, taking in 3,000 ships a year.

Port of Amsterdam

The Jewish Community

The large Jewish population was the lifeblood of the island’s prosperity. In the early 18th century, Sephardic Jews immigrated to Sint Eustatius from the Netherlands, bringing entrepreneurial skills and talent and establishing financial relations with their brethren in Europe and elsewhere. The population eventually comprised one-tenth of the island. These tradesmen became prosperous enough to build the largest synagogue in the New World, Honen Dalim. Stone bricks were brought in from Europe to build the massive structure.

Many Trading Houses Jewish Owned

Duty-Free Port

Though short on natural resources, the little island in the sun boasted a global web of traders and maritime concerns. The Jewish settlers on St. Eustatius made up a large proportion of those merchants who were also “illegal” sellers of war materials and supplies to the Americans. Couple that with the banking interests in Amsterdam, and you had the makings of a system that had some refer to the island as the “Armory of the American Revolution.”

Prosperous Trading Hub

Robinson would meet with some of the local Jewish businessmen and purchase munitions. This was the beginning of a covert (or not so covert) trade that exchanged American cash crops, such as tobacco, for the necessities of war. This was a crucial pipeline during the early years of the struggle for independence.

Smugglers Hub

But the pesky island that flaunted the rules of maritime trade was in the crosshairs of the empire that policed maritime trade—at least wherever the navy sailed. However, political and diplomatic niceties prevented the British government from doing much to stop the clandestine trade that provided the American rebels their lifeblood. As long as the Netherlands and France were not open allies of America, the better policy was to send occasional squadrons to police the waters. But stamping out the nest of smugglers and (to the British) illicit traders) would have to wait.

Smugglers Avoided Tariffs - 

But Also Supplied the American Revolution

A Vital Threat

A few years into the war, London realized that the threat posed by the little island needed addressing. By 1780, the Admiralty felt the time was ripening for action. France and Spain were in the war, and following the revelations captured along with American emissary Henry Laurens, the focus had turned to the West Indies, where the British felt their greater economic interest lay. With the Southern strategy in play, everything lined up for a reckoning.

The Admiralty

Send Rodney

British Admiral George Rodney, a competent and well-thought naval veteran, was given the task. In late 1780, he sailed with a fleet of fifteen ships of the line, numerous support ships and transports, and some 3,000 men to deal with the “nest of vipers” once and for all.  Arriving at the harbor entrance on 3 February 1781, the arrayed ships posed an impressive site. With some 1,000 naval guns, Governor de Graaf could only look down in dismay as he had only a dozen cannons and fifty men. He accepted Rodney’s offer of surrender.

Admiral George Rodney

Worse Than Thought

The British admiral was stunned by the cornucopia of supplies and munitions on the island and the number of vessels laden with goods in the American trade. Beaches were lined with warehouses brimming with goods, primarily sugar and tobacco. Others were crammed with naval stores—the timber, resin, tar, and hemp rope needed for ships. The magnitude of the island's contribution to the American war was further evinced by the number of munitions taken that belonged to the Royal Navy—sold by British merchants on nearby St. Kitts!

Full Storehouses and Magazines

Months of Rapine

Rodney set to work confiscating whatever had value. With large gambling debts, the more he could seize for Britain, the larger his share of the spoils. The admiral torched, dumped, or looted what he could. The island was sacked like a medieval city. His disdain for the Jews was manifest—he believed many prosperous merchants were mainly responsible for the support of the Americans. In an act reminiscent of later Boer war tactics, Rodney had many of the island’s prominent Jewish leaders rounded up and packed them off to St. Kitts. While now destitute families watched in horror, he had all their possessions seized.

The British Take Sint Eustatius

Not Following Orders

Meanwhile, Rodney took his eye off the ball. He violated his orders to destroy the supplies meant for the American forces and shadow a French fleet bound for North America under Rear Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse. As he tarried on Sint Eustatius to continue his plundering, the French arrived in American waters and set sail for the Chesapeake. Rodney sent part of his fleet to join Admiral Hood while he, now ailing, sailed for England. De Grasse and Hood squared off at the Battle of the Chesapeake, where the French drove off the British. They then bottled British General Charles Cornwallis’s army at Yorktown, sealing the fate of Britain in North America.

Admiral de Grasse

After Rodney

The British occupation of Sint Eustatius did not last long. Months later, a French fleet recaptured it and was returned to Dutch control in 1784. But the island in the sun was a shell of its former self. Months of destruction and plundering by Hood bankrupted the locals, and the population of around 8,000 began to dwindle. With the war over and the former British colonies now free to trade at will, its importance dwindled.

Statius Contemporary Map

During the Napoleonic Wars, the French and British clashed over it (the Netherlands was made a client and then absorbed by France). The Congress of Vienna returned Sint Eustatius to the Netherlands in 1816. But the “Golden Island” would never be the same as it was during its halcyon days of the late 18^th century.

The Congress of Vienna

Statius Speculation

The tale of the island in the sun has two “what ifs.”

The first is obvious. What if Rodney had not bent to his avaricious side and followed his orders instead of spending months looting and expropriating but pivoted toward the French threat after taking the island? Would America’s fate, and that of the world, have gone differently?

The second is more obtuse. But what if the Jewish population had been left untouched and not gone into a diaspora? Would their trade and finance know-how have grown Eustatius an even greater regional magnet for trade and finance, leading the entire West Indies to prosperity?

Visitors to the island today could scarcely imagine its brief but essential role in events that shaped the course of history. But the island in the sun did have its role—and it is one we should never forget.