Coryell's Ferry

Before the Brooklyn Bridge, the Lincoln Tunnel, or the Wilson Bridge, there was the ferry. And not just the Staten Island Ferry...And yes, there were tolls...

A Hard Land to Travel

America during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies was a tough land to travel through. Most of America was still heavily forested and inland, with rugged to mountainous terrain making travel dangerous and often life-threatening. By the mid-1700s, however, the coastal and tidewater regions were relatively developed. Here, a network of mostly poor roads crisscrossed these areas, connected by fords, bridges, and ferries crossing waterways. 

Early American bridge building was limited to short spans, and fords only allowed crossing shallow waters. Numerous ferries were established along rivers and tidal areas, carrying carts, wagons, livestock, and travelers on foot, horseback, or in carriages. 

However, ferries during the Yankee Doodle Spies era were often unreliable and sometimes dangerous. With no weather forecasting, they were vulnerable to sudden storms, weather changes, and shifting tides that could cause accidents, property damage, and injuries to passengers or animals. Many ferries kept irregular schedules, with some only operating part-time, making the service unreliable and often a poor source of income. 

Consequently, many ferry operators had second jobs, such as farming, running a tavern, or owning a store. Schedules were frequently nonexistent, leaving weary travelers at the mercy of the ferryman's other commitments, which could lead to delays and long waits.

Dutch settlers used ferries to traverse the Hudson
and cross to Long Island

But they were vital to the transportation system of that era. Ferries linked America's growing tidal cities to their surroundings, utilizing an expanding network of toll roads, pikes, and longer-range boats connected to them, enabling efficient if sometimes unpredictable transit from the mid-Atlantic to distant locations like New York and Baltimore. 

North of Philadelphia, major ferry operations connected Mercer County, New Jersey, and Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Between 1675 and the start of the American Revolution, Trenton established the Lower, Middle, and Upper Ferry crossings over the Delaware River. The Middle Ferry was linked with a stagecoach line to New Brunswick and provided downriver service to Philadelphia.

River Ferries

Simple Designs

Some ferries were simply small longboats that were rowed or sailed across a body of water. However, most were purpose-built with a simple design. They essentially consisted of a rectangular platform with a flat bottom and vertical sides. These ferries were easy and inexpensive to construct, with the only requirement being that they could float. The bottoms at each end angled upward, reducing water resistance and allowing for easier movement across the water. 

Most upriver ferries lacked landing docks, instead loading and unloading directly onto a natural riverbank, which was sometimes modified to include a sloping earth ramp for entry and exit. In more advanced ferries, a movable ramp was attached at each end, pivoting on hinges and operated by a long pole. 

When crossing, both ramps were kept in a raised position. The simplest and most reliable way to move a ferry across a typically shallow river was by manpower, specifically by poling. This method was used by most riverboats and was the technique employed by the Durham boats during the military transport across the Delaware in 1776. Some ferries used oars or winches pulling on ropes.

Photo of 19the century ferry - simple design little changed from 18th century
this one powered by winch and rope

The Ferry to Freedom

The ferry played a major role in the American War for Independence. The movement of supplies relied on them. But most important was the ferry's role in the movement of armies. Some engagements, such as Stonos Ferry in South Carolina (1779), took place at or near ferries, and many others were facilitated by ferry travel.

The battles around New York in 1776 (the setting for my first novel, The Patriot Spy) relied on ferry crossings to move troops and supplies. Brooklyn was central to Washington's escape from Long Island despite overwhelming British forces. He used the Brooklyn ferry point as his landing spot. 

Most famously, the ferries between Pennsylvania and New Jersey played key roles in the American Revolution. As the war moved across the Jerseys, other ferries operated on the Delaware. Trenton’s Lower Ferry earned the nickname "the Continental Ferry” because its owner, Elijah Bond, offered reduced rates to active American soldiers. 

During the British occupation of Philadelphia (September 1777–June 1778), American spies disguised as farmers used ferries on the Schuylkill River, including Gray’s Ferry, to slip in and out of the city. The most famous ferry incident of the war was George Washington and his army crossing the Delaware on Christmas night in 1776, at McConkey’s Ferry. This brave event and related stories are told in my second novel, The Cavalier Spy. But a lesser-known ferry in the region also played a crucial role in the fight for independence.

Washington's Crossing of Delaware on Durham boats
in December 1776

A Lesser Known Ferry

Some ten miles upriver on the Delaware was an important ferry run by John Coryell, a tavern keeper and ferry operator. Coryell's Ferry crossed the Delaware between what are now Lambertville, New Jersey, and New Hope, Pennsylvania. At the time, both towns were also known as Coryell's Ferry. Though less famous than McConkey's Ferry, Coryell's Ferry was a key crossing during the Revolutionary War. 

In early December 1776, Coryell refused passage to British soldiers as General Charles Cornwallis pursued the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. There was also military activity around Coryell's Ferry during this period, with Cornwallis's troops pressing the retreating Americans and guarding against local militias. In 1777, part of Washington's army camped near the ferry, using it to cross into Pennsylvania ahead of the Brandywine campaign.

Coryell's Ferry 1776

Mentioned in the Dispatches

Coryell's Ferry is referenced in three of George Washington's papers from December 1776: “General Orders, 12 December 1776,” “From George Washington to John Hancock, 12 December 1776,” “General Orders, 29 December 1776.” Spelling was inconsistent in 1700s America, and the ferry's name is spelled differently in each document—"Corells," "Corriels," and "Coryells." 

Campaign of 1778

Coryell's Ferry played a significant role in the Monmouth campaign of June 1778, when the Continental Army crossed there to pursue the British into the Jerseys. The events that initiated that crossing began the previous fall. The British army occupied the American capital, Philadelphia, from September 26, 1777, until June 18, 1778. This occupation compelled Congress to relocate to York, Pennsylvania, which demoralized many Americans. 

During that same winter of 1777, General George Washington positioned his army about twenty miles from Philadelphia at Valley Forge, which served as an excellent location for "winter quarters." The forge offered solid ground for defending against British attacks and was a strategic vantage point for observing or blocking British movements. 

In early 1778, the British recalled General William Howe and appointed his second-in-command, Sir Henry Clinton, as the new commander-in-chief. Recognizing his vulnerability and aiming to consolidate his forces for a new British strategy, Clinton decided to retreat to New York. His forces set out on June 18, 1777, crossing the Delaware River at Cooper's Ferry into New Jersey. From there, they began a northeast march across the Jerseys.

There were numerous ferries along the coastal and inland rivers
of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania 

By then, Washington had the Continental Army on the move. Learning of the British evacuation of Philadelphia, Washington decided it was time to leave Valley Forge. 

On June 20, the columns of dust-covered but eager soldiers arrived at the Pennsylvania side of Coryell's Ferry. The next day, Washington crossed to the New Jersey side (at today's Lambertville) and set up his headquarters at the Holcombe House. The main body of the army soon followed the commander-in-chief into New Jersey. This was not a secret, nighttime crossing like at Brooklyn or McConkey's. With a much larger force, including 700 horses and 200 wagons, the 1778 crossing was a large, loud event. 

By the morning of June 21, they began pursuing the retreating British. From Coryell’s Ferry, the army traveled through what is now West Amwell (then called simply Amwell). The main body camped near Ringoes on June 22. This effort culminated on June 28, when they fought the British near Monmouth Courthouse in the famous battle of that name. Although it was a draw, the Continental Army faced the British on equal terms in open battle. 

Crossing at Coryell's Ferry led to the battle at Monmouth

A Call for Help

Although Monmouth's maneuver and actions occurred in June, Washington had done extensive prior planning and clearly saw Coryell and his ferry as vital to his efforts to prevent the British from using it and to ensure its availability for the Continental Army. The dispatches to and from Coryell shown below provide insight into the logistical aspect of Washington's war, which required early preparation of the operational area. (Note: indifferent spelling was common across all classes during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies.)

To John Coryell
Head Quarters Valley Forge 1st March 1778

Sir

I am very anxious to have all the continental flat Boats below Trenton carried up the River as far as Easton or near it, that they may be intirely out of the Enemy’s reach—I have desired the Gentlemen of the Navy Board to order Commodore Hazelwood to collect all those and carry them up as far as Trenton and when he has got them there to let you know it. I shall therefore be exceedingly obliged to you if you will collect a proper number of hands who are used to carry Boats thro’ the Falls and go down for them when you have notice. Or if you do not receive such notice in a few days, the Men may as well go down to Bordentown where the Boats are and bring them up from thence. There are a number of Cannon and some Stores there which I want carried to a place of safety. If you think the Boats can be taken thro’ the falls with the Cannon in them, it will save much expence and secure them perfectly. You are to apply to Messrs Hopkinson and Wharton of the Continental Navy Board at Bordentown for the Cannon if they can be carried up in the Boats.

I see by a letter of yours to Colo. Lutterloh that you want Money for these purposes. You may hire the Men for doing this service upon an assurance of their being paid the moment it is performed. And you will therefore make out the account when you have finished and apply directly to me for the Money when it shall be paid with thanks. 

I am &c.

(Washington)

Coryell's Landing Toll House

Response to His Excellency

Coryells Ferry [Delaware River]

March the 6th 1778

Honoured Sr

I Recd yours of the 1st instant the third at night & am Determined to serve you according to your Directions If Possable the Badness of the weather has hindered me to proceed on with any more Boats since my Last1 but Expect to Start the Remainder in two or three Days that I now have at my Ferry & when they are gone I will go after the Rest I am afraid I cant Bring up any Cannon in the Fleet Boats If there should be any Dur[ha]m boats below as I Expect there is I kno I Can Bring up Canno[n] in them and Will I have ingaged a number of Brave watermen for the purpose & I am dr Sr your Humble sert

Jno. Coryell

P.S. there was a number of peac eis of Duck Left at my place I had to press sleds to move them to Reading & I Kept one for the use of my self & men; If it Cant be spared it is not Cut I will send it on.

J.C.

Coryell's Landing today

Who Let the Dogs Out?

I apologize for the title, but I couldn't help myself. The eighteenth century, the Age of Enlightenment, not only gave birth to the world's first modern republic but also shaped a more contemporary view of dogs. Scientists generally agree that there is strong evidence indicating that dogs were domesticated around 15,000 years ago. By roughly 14,000 years ago, people started to bury dogs, sometimes alongside humans. The relationship between humans and dogs has developed over thousands of years.

Wolf-Dog Companion

Working Dogs

Dogs are considered the first domesticated animals. Initially, domesticated dogs were used for hunting, but they later evolved into sheepdogs, war dogs, and various types of watchdogs. We all recognize the roles dogs play in guarding sheep and homes, but their contributions go beyond that. Turnspit dogs powered devices by operating a treadmill connected to a roasting spit. Similar setups were used for household chores, such as churning butter. Additionally, dogs were trained to herd cattle and serve as draft animals, pulling small carts or sleds for farms, peddlers, or travelers, delivering mail, and transporting people for leisure or entertainment. In the latter case, dogs were trained for racing and fighting, with bets placed on the outcomes, a practice that gained popularity in the eighteenth century.

Dogs Returned from the Chase in Colonial Times

Man’s Best Friend 

Over centuries of living together, the dog became “man’s best friend.” However, there has still been a negative side to their history. The Roman proverb, cave canem—beware of the dog—points to a darker aspect of this respected creature. William Shakespeare, the playwright and poet, used the words "dog" and "cur" to describe contemptible people. Overall, though, humans have generally felt very positive about dogs. Benjamin Franklin once said, "There are three faithful friends—an old wife, an old dog, and ready money."

Hunting dogs were companions and workers in the 18th century

Dogs of War

Frederick the Great &
His Beloved

War dogs were used in ancient times, trained for combat as well as for roles such as scouts, sentries, and trackers. The earliest recorded use of war dogs in battle, documented in classical sources, occurred when Alyattes of Lydia fought against the Cimmerians around 600 BC. The Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and Romans all utilized dogs in warfare. During the Middle Ages, nobility gifted breeding stock of war dogs. The Spanish conquistadors brought war dogs to America, using armored dogs specifically trained to attack natives. These dogs were a mixed breed of deerhound and mastiff, recognized by their padded armor and spiked collars. These large, fearsome animals instilled terror in Aztec and Inca warriors (who wouldn’t be?). The conquistadors typically unleashed the dogs just as the enemy was about to break, leading to a rout that was often more lethal than the battle itself. Ponce De Leon reportedly used a brace of these large war dogs to suppress a slave rebellion in Puerto Rico. In the eighteenth century, the renowned Prussian king and warlord Frederick the Great employed dogs as battlefield messengers. A celebrated dog lover, he is famously quoted: “The more I see of men, the better I like my dog."

War Dogs were used in Ancient Times

Yankee Doodle Dogs

Soldiers always had affection
for dogs

By the start of the Revolutionary War in 1775, dogs were well-established and an essential part of the culture in the thirteen colonies. However, they weren’t always welcomed. In 1772, Williamsburg’s city leaders passed legislation called the Act to Prevent Mischief from Dogs, which banned anyone from owning a female dog in the city. Residents could keep two male dogs as long as they wore marked collars. Strays would be put down. The era of the Yankee Doodle Spies marked the beginning of advocacy for animals. In 1776, an Anglican clergyman named Humphrey Primatt published a key work titled: “A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals.” Sort of a Declaration of Independence for animals. The increasing popularity of fox hunting in England and the colonies created a demand for hunting dogs. While dogs traditionally herded livestock, carried messages, guarded their owners, and transported packs, they also grew more popular as pets. During the Revolutionary War, they offered comfort to their owners who were far from home. Dogs served as both working animals and pets in colonial America. And, of course, there were sporting dogs as well. While fighting, both British and American soldiers adopted stray dogs and other animals as they traveled. Many units in both armies kept dogs as pets and mascots. Let’s highlight a few notable figures from the war who have a connection to the beloved canine.

Many British Regiments had dogs as
mascots

His Excellency

The leading figure of the Glorious Cause, George Washington, loved dogs. As a Virginia planter, he was an enthusiastic hunter, and most of his dogs were used for hunting. Washington also owned Black and Tan Coonhounds. Interestingly, he named them Drunkard, Taster, Tippler, and Tipsy. Just as Washington experimented with farming, he is said to have done the same with his dogs, breeding coonhounds with staghounds. The Marquis de Lafayette, a close and long-time friend of Washington, sent him seven staghounds as a gift. During the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies, these dogs were exceptional hunters, bred to chase their prey using speed and sharp sight. Three of Washington’s staghounds were named Sweet Lips, Scentwell, and Vulcan. More names to amuse.

Dogs played no small part in a planter's life,
especially the First Planter

Charles Lee

Gen Charles Lee loved his dogs more
than people

One of the most controversial, eccentric, and distasteful characters was Major General Charles Lee. The former British officer, mercenary, and Virginia planter served as a rival to Washington and was the second-ranking officer in the Continental Army. Lee always seemed to be accompanied by a pack of hounds, which he doted on and treated better than most people around him. Once, during a social event, he had his favorite dog, Spada, mount a chair and present his paw to Abigail Adams, who was also a dog lover. In December 1776, Lee was captured under mysterious circumstances while separated from his troops during a visit to White’s Tavern in Basking Ridge, New Jersey. A British raiding party led by the equally notorious Banastre Tarleton captured Lee in the early morning hours and took him into captivity. After his capture, Lee wrote to Washington requesting that a servant and an aide-de-camp be sent to him along with “my dogs…as I never stood in greater need of their company than at present." I incorporated Lee’s dogs into one of the plots of my novel, The Cavalier Spy (2012, Twilight Times Books). Lee’s relationship with the dogs plays a role in his search for Lee, and the dogs nearly frustrate his efforts, although they do not impede the efforts of Tarleton and the British.

 

Baron von Steuben

Italian Greyhound

“Baron” von Steuben, a German officer who offered his services to America, served as inspector general and major general of the Continental Army. Steuben played a key role in retraining the Continental Army at Valley Forge. His “Blue Book” of drills served as the Army’s manual for years after the war. Less well known is that Von Steuben loved dogs. His favorite was said to be an Italian greyhound named Azor. Azor went everywhere with Steuben; in that sense, he was much like his erstwhile master, Frederick the Great.

Von Steuben

William Howe

Gen Howe

The British commander-in-chief in North America, General Sir William Howe, also had a fondness for dogs. During the Philadelphia campaign in 1777, Howe’s army barely fended off a surprise attack by Washington’s Continental Army. The battle was fought in the fog and was more chaotic than most 18th-century conflicts. Washington’s divisions could not coordinate their movements because they couldn’t see what was happening on the battlefield. After some hard fighting, the Americans withdrew, abandoning their capital to British occupation. Somehow, during the fog-enveloped combat, a small dog was found by the Americans. After the battle, they learned from his collar that he belonged to General Howe. Many around Washington urged him to keep the dog as a form of revenge for their loss and as an act of defiance against the British commander. But ever the gentleman, Washington saw the situation differently.

He ordered the dog returned to Howe with this two-line message:

“General Washington’s compliments to General Howe does himself the pleasure to return him a dog, which accidentally fell into his hands, and by the inscription on the Collar appears to belong to General Howe.”

A fully documented draft of the note is still in the archives, written in the handwriting of Washington’s aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton.

Yankee Doodle Dog 

The Mad Man

Who was that Mad Man?

As a boy learning about the American Revolution, I found it quite amusing that a general would be called "Mad" Anthony Wayne. I wondered who that madman was and what he was so mad about. Any study of the American War for Independence should include this colorful Pennsylvanian, who captured the imagination of his contemporaries and endures through the ages.

Scion of a Scots-Irish Military Family

Anthony Wayne was born on January 1, 1745, to Isaac Wayne and Elizabeth Iddings Wayne in Easttown Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania. Isaac Wayne was born in Ireland, the son of Captain Anthony Wayne, a military officer who immigrated to America with his Dutch wife, Hannah. Their son Isaac became a tanner, establishing one of Pennsylvania's top businesses, and eventually took over the family estate, Waynesboro, from the aging captain. 

Young Anthony Wayne was well-educated, attending the Philadelphia Academy and the College of Philadelphia. Like George Washington, Wayne also worked as a surveyor, especially in Nova Scotia. He returned to Pennsylvania in 1766, where he continued surveying and worked at Isaac's tannery. He also married Mary Penrose, who bore him two children, Margretta and Isaac. 

As tensions with Great Britain increased, young Anthony became involved in the American cause. Like many emerging leaders of means, he turned to public service. Wayne served in the Pennsylvania legislature in 1774, and the next year, he raised a militia regiment in Chester County. In January 1776, he received a commission as colonel of the 4th Pennsylvania Continental Line. Things were about to get interesting for Anthony and the war.

Wayne's Home in Waynesboro

A Mad Campaigner in a Mad Campaign

As colonel of the 4th Pennsylvania, Wayne headed north to join General John Sullivan's division in the reckless and doomed invasion of Canada. In his first action, Wayne fought bravely but unsuccessfully against larger forces at the Battle of Trois-Rivieres in June 1776. 

The campaign soon fell apart, but Wayne proved himself through his leadership in guiding the army's retreat into New York. He then took command of Fort Ticonderoga, a crucial defense point on New York's northern frontier. Congress, pleased with his efforts, promoted him to Brigadier General in February 1777. Not long after, he was called south to join General George Washington and the main Continental Army, where he was given command of a brigade of Pennsylvanians.

Anthony Wayne

A Colorful Character

Wayne was a vibrant and irreverent leader who seemed to set the stage for later military figures like George Custer and George Patton. He used profanity effectively, often amusing his troops. Like Patton, he understood that soldiers should look sharp and that military pride comes from a good appearance. Similar to Custer and Patton, he was always well-dressed and kept a neat appearance. His bravado added to his legend, making him a favorite subject not just among troops but also among fellow officers. And like Custer and Patton, Wayne proved himself with inspiring performances in battle.

Holding the line at Brandywine

Although Washington was defeated, he managed to extricate his army and keep it as a threat to the slowly advancing British forces. When the Americans abandoned Philadelphia, Washington sent Wayne to shadow the British army and threaten their lines of communication. 

Unfortunately, the British received intelligence that revealed Wayne's position. Wayne's encampment near the Paoli Tavern was overrun in a stealthy night attack by Major General Charles Grey on the evening of September 20th. Grey earned the nickname "No Flint" because he ordered his men to remove their flints to avoid accidental discharges that could spoil his surprise: cold steel for the rebels. Later, claims emerged that the British took no prisoners and granted no quarter, leading to the engagement being known as the "Paoli Massacre." 

The massacre tarnished Wayne's reputation somewhat. Undaunted, he led his men across the fog-shrouded fields near Germantown, Pennsylvania, on October 4, 1777. With typical audacity, Wayne's command advanced ahead of other Continental brigades and pressed on the retreating British with the bayonet. However, Wayne and his old commander, General John Sullivan (also known to be headstrong and impetuous), advanced too quickly. Both were cut off about two miles ahead of the other Continental regiments. 

When the British regained their composure, their defenses stiffened. When Washington finally ordered a retreat, he once more called on Wayne to provide the rear guard. Not long after, the Continental Army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge.

Despite  the Paoli Massacre, 
Wayne was held in high regard

The harsh winter at Valley Forge had a silver lining. A new American army was born, trained, and drilled to fight in European style by German General Von Steuben. This new army would get its chance to prove itself the following summer, and Wayne would be in the mix once again. The British relieved Lord Howe of his command and replaced him with Sir Henry Clinton, who decided to abandon Philadelphia and concentrate forces once more around New York City. 

In June 1778, Clinton ordered half of his forces to sail north. However, a sizable column marched across New Jersey toward their new base of operations. Wayne was called upon to lead the advance guard at Monmouth Court House, New Jersey. Once again thrust into a controversial engagement, Wayne's forces were abandoned by Major General Charles Lee. His men were soon pinned down by superior British forces, a rearguard that struck back at the pursuing Americans. Demonstrating determination and resourcefulness under fire, Wayne held his ground until reinforcements sent by Washington arrived. Wayne reorganized his troops and continued fighting.

American attack at Monmouth

Light Anthony

By the spring of 1779, Washington's Army focused on the main British garrison in New York. The British tried to lure Washington into a decisive battle. Awaiting anticipated French support, Washington played a game of cat and mouse. 

In May 1779, Sir Henry Clinton, the British Commander in Chief, launched the first phase of a complex plan to destroy Washington's army. Using their superior naval forces, the British moved up the North (Hudson) River and took the strategic position at Stony Point, about 10 miles south of West Point and 35 miles north of New York City. 

This move aimed to draw Washington out of the Hudson Highlands. Clinton then sent an expedition to Connecticut, leaving a reinforced regiment with fifteen guns to defend the earthworks around Stony Point. Washington observed the British defenses and decided to take them by force. 

To accomplish this, the Corps of Light Infantry was formed on June 12, 1779. There was no doubt who would command the unit or the mission: Anthony Wayne. The Corps of Light Infantry was an elite unit assembled for campaigns from 1777 to 1781. Its members came from the light infantry companies of each regiment in Washington's army. 

In 1779, the Corps consisted of a brigade of four regiments, each with two battalions of four companies. At midnight on July 16, the attack began in three columns, with Wayne personally leading one. In a tactic successfully used against him at Paoli, Wayne had his men advance with unloaded muskets, ready to storm the defenses with bayonets. Wayne's column came under musket fire, and he was wounded. Nevertheless, Wayne's men pressed on and quickly overran the British defenses. They captured over 500 prisoners and suffered only 100 casualties. 

This victory boosted the morale of the American Army and the cause, which had suffered setbacks. For his heroism and tactical success, Congress awarded Wayne a rare medal in recognition of the victory.

Stony Point was Wayne's most celebrated exploit

Why so Mad?

I always thought Wayne was nicknamed "Mad" because of his heroics in battle, especially for his actions at Stony Point. However, ironically, he didn't earn his nickname for his reckless fighting style; instead, it came from an incident in Morristown, New Jersey, during winter quarters in 1781. 

The story goes that New Jersey law officers detained an eccentric soldier known as “the Commodore” or “Jimmy the Drover” for a minor civil infraction. The soldier asked Wayne for help, but Wayne threatened to have the troublemaker whipped instead. “Jimmy the Drover” supposedly responded, “Anthony is mad! Farewell to you; clear the coast for the Commodore, ‘Mad Anthony’s’ friend.” Wayne’s Pennsylvanians really enjoyed the story and decided that “Mad Anthony” was a fitting nickname for their leader. You have to admit, it’s not a bad nickname.

 Winning the War

In the spring of 1781, Wayne led his Pennsylvanians into Virginia and served under Lafayette to help stop the British. On July 6, 1781, he fought alongside Lafayette at the Battle of Green Spring. His aggressive charge surprised the larger British forces, probably saving the Americans from defeat. Wayne then joined Washington to help defeat Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

However, the war did not end there. In 1782, Wayne was sent to Georgia to help drive out British forces. He broke the longstanding British alliance with the Indian tribes in Georgia. As British power declined, he managed to negotiate treaties with the two strongest tribes, the Creek and the Cherokee. As a final honor, Congress promoted him to major general on October 10, 1783. 

After the hostilities ended, Wayne went back to Pennsylvania. The well-known war hero served in the Pennsylvania Assembly and was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. But after the war, his life was focused on peace and quiet, as it was for many of his peers.

Commander of the US Army

Wayne, as Commander of the
Legion of the United States

In 1792, it was time for Anthony Wayne to answer the bugle call once again. 

President George Washington appointed Wayne as commander-in-chief of the modest U.S. Army, known as the Legion of the United States. The Legion had suffered several defeats at the hands of the intertribal Indian Confederation formed to resist white encroachments into the Ohio Territory— the Midwest. 

The Indian Confederacy decisively defeated U.S. forces in 1790 and 1791 under the leadership of Shawnee chieftain Blue Jacket and Miami chief Little Turtle. The Indians had been supported and supplied by the British, who refused to evacuate British fortifications in the region as stipulated in the Treaty of Paris.

Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers was the new
Army's first post in the RevWar

Upon his arrival, Mad Anthony energized the beleaguered Legion with his own passionate leadership. At the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Wayne decisively ended Indian resistance when his experienced force of 1,000 men routed the 2,000 warriors assembled for a final showdown near Fort Miami on the Maumee River. 

This victory allowed Wayne to negotiate the Treaty of Greenville in August 1795. Under its terms, the Indians ceded most of Ohio and large parts of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. This outcome was not guaranteed for many reasons (British schemes aimed to keep the 13 states along the Atlantic coast). Wayne's victory secured thousands of square miles of disputed land for the United States and led to signed peace treaties with the Indian tribes. Mad Anthony Wayne successfully completed the mission for which President George Washington had called him back to active duty.

Treaty of Fort Greenville secured peace in the
 Northwest Territory and American expansion

Untimely Death

Having finished his work in the northwest, Wayne started the long journey home. He sailed from what is now Detroit on a sloop. After five days, he reached the site of the old French outpost at Fort Presqu'Isle, now known as Erie, Pennsylvania. Though the weather was nice, his thoughts grew darker, and he wrote several letters about his final wishes. 

At Presque Isle, Wayne had a serious gout attack. Anyone who's experienced gout knows that’s enough reason to be upset. This was clearly a severe case with complications. Urgent calls for doctors were sent to Pittsburgh and the Army hospitals. Wayne's health kept getting worse as he developed intense stomach pains. The doctors from the east arrived, but on the same day, December 15, 1796, "Mad" Anthony Wayne died. He was buried in a simple coffin, with his initials and date of death carved into the wood using round-headed brass tacks, at the foot of the blockhouse flagstaff on garrison hill.

Rebuilt blockhouse on Presque Isle

A Strangely Eerie Homecoming

In 1808, Wayne's son Isaac returned to Presque Isle to take his father's remains back home. 

Unfortunately, he lacked enough space for all the remains in his small, sulky wagon. The doctor helping him boiled the late hero's corpse, then returned the flesh and clothing to the coffin and reburied it. He then packed the bones for transport to the east. "Mad" Anthony Wayne's bones were buried in the family plot at St. David's Episcopal Church cemetery in Radnor, Pennsylvania. The strange end to the great warrior's earthly remains gave rise to legends of hauntings. One could say that while Anthony Wayne may have become enraged for little reason in life, he certainly had a reason for anger in death.

Wayne's 2d Gravesite Radnor, Penna.

A Yankee Doodle Thanksgiving

Origins of the Thanksgiving Celebration

Although the origins of Thanksgiving in America date back before the 18th century, it was His Excellency, President George Washington, who issued the first U.S. proclamation calling on all Americans to give thanks to God on a specific date. Americans generally believe that Thanksgiving first took place at Plymouth Colony in 1621. The Puritan settlers of Plymouth, also known as Pilgrims, held the feast after their first successful harvest as a way to thank God for their blessings. Nearby Native Americans were invited to join in the feast. However, this did not become an annual event. Instead, the colonies held days of thanksgiving at different times of the year and without a fixed theme.

Plymouth Thanksgiving

By the time of the American Revolution, days of fasting and thanksgiving became political events. Most Americans saw liberty as a gift from God. Days of fasting or thanksgiving declared by the states promoted unity and strengthened commitment to the Glorious Cause. During the American War for Independence, state assemblies set aside days of prayer to honor specific military victories. 

In 1777, the impressive victory over the British at Saratoga, New York, was a turning point. Instead of state legislatures celebrating it locally, the Continental Congress proposed establishing a national day to honor that decisive victory. Commander-in-Chief George Washington agreed and declared December 18, 1777, as the first national Thanksgiving Day. The Continental Congress supported similar proclamations until 1784.

British surrender at Saratoga spurred a
December 1777 Thanksgiving proclamation

Boudinot's Resolution

On September 25, 1789, New Jersey's Elias Boudinot, a dedicated Presbyterian, made a motion in the United States House of Representatives for a resolution that stated: “That a joint committee of both Houses be directed to wait upon the President of the United States, to request that he would recommend to the people of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging, with grateful hearts, the many signal favors of Almighty God, especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a Constitution of government for their safety and happiness.” 

The purpose this time was to thank the Almighty for the new constitution and the new form of government—created with as much sweat and tears as independence itself. The founders and members of the new government made no distinction between the blessings of independence and the new republic and God's grace. To them, the former stemmed from the latter. This is a reminder we should keep in mind each Thanksgiving.

Elias Boudinot

President Washington's Thanksgiving Proclamation

New York, 3 October 1789

By the President of the United States of America. a Proclamation.

Washington issued the nation's first
Proclamation of Thanksgiving

Whereas it is the duty of all Nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey his will, to be grateful for his benefits, and humbly to implore his protection and favor—and whereas both Houses of Congress have by their joint Committee requested me “to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness.”

Now therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be—That we may then all unite in rendering unto him our sincere and humble thanks—for his kind care and protection of the People of this Country previous to their becoming a Nation—for the signal and manifold mercies, and the favorable interpositions of his Providence which we experienced in the course and conclusion of the late war—for the great degree of tranquillity, union, and plenty, which we have since enjoyed—for the peaceable and rational manner, in which we have been enabled to establish constitutions of government for our safety and happiness, and particularly the national One now lately instituted—for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed; and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and in general for all the great and various favors which he hath been pleased to confer upon us.

And also that we may then unite in most humbly offering our prayers and supplications to the great Lord and Ruler of Nations and beseech him to pardon our national and other transgressions—to enable us all, whether in public or private stations, to perform our several and relative duties properly and punctually—to render our national government a blessing to all the people, by constantly being a Government of wise, just, and constitutional laws, discreetly and faithfully executed and obeyed—to protect and guide all Sovereigns and Nations (especially such as have shown kindness unto us) and to bless them with good government, peace, and concord—To promote the knowledge and practice of true religion and virtue, and the increase of science among them and us—and generally to grant unto all Mankind such a degree of temporal prosperity as he alone knows to be best.

Given under my hand at the City of New-York the third day of October in the year of our Lord 1789.

Go: Washington

First Patriots... First Veterans

Issues regarding veterans and their fair treatment pre-date the founding of our nation. The colonists fought a series of wars against the natives and the French in the run-up to the break with Britain. The English colonies in North America provided pensions for disabled veterans. The first law in the colonies on pensions, enacted in 1636 by Plymouth, provided money to those disabled in the colony’s defense against Indians. Other colonies eventually followed Plymouth’s example.

Revolutionary War

But the American Revolution brought treatment of veterans to the forefront of the earliest politics in America. In 1776 the Continental Congress tried to encourage enlistments and reduce
desertions by passing the nation’s first pension law. It granted half pay for life in cases of loss of limb or other serious disability. But because the Continental Congress did not have the authority or the money to make pension payments, the actual payments were left to the individual states. This obligation was carried out in varying degrees by different states. At most, only 3,000 Revolutionary War veterans ever drew any pension. Later, grants of public land were made to those who served to the end of the war.

Continental Army Soldiers

A Veterans Rebellion?

But again the money was not appropriated and many veterans or their families sold off what pension rights they had for pennies on the dollar. The political fall out of all this was tremendous. The boiling point came with Shays' Rebellion in 1786 when western Massachusetts farmers, mostly veterans of the War for Independence, could not get credit for their farming despite the government reneging on their wartime and veterans' compensation. Shays himself, was a captain who served at Lexington & Concord, was a wounded veteran.

Shays' Rebellion: A Veterans' rebellion?

A New Government

Ironically, Shays' rebellion showed the need (among other things) for a stronger central government, which led to the Continental Congress and the US Constitution adopted and ratified in 1789, with the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The first United States Congress assumed the burden of paying veterans benefits. The first federal pension legislation was passed in 1789. It continued the pension law passed by the Continental Congress. The Secretary of War administered pensions in the early years of the republic. Yet fair payment and treatment for veterans continued to impact America's political landscape. Those who answered the colors had to fight to maintain their rights even as they sacrificed for others to retain theirs.

Constitutional Convention

A Second "War for Independence"

The War of 1812 brought the plight of Revolutionary War pensioners back into the public eye. Veterans of that conflict were provided a reasonable pension, including widows and orphans. As the economy began to thrive Congress looked to new ways to support veterans, especially the remaining Revolutionary War veterans.  A new principle for veterans benefits, providing pensions based on need, was introduced in the 1818 Service Pension Law. The law provided that every person who had served in the War for Independence and needed assistance would receive a fixed pension for life. The rate was $20 a month for officers and $8 a month for enlisted men. Before this legislation, pensions were granted only to disabled veterans.  The result of the new law was an immediate increase in pensioners. From 1816 to 1820, the number of pensioners increased from 2,200 to 17,730, and the cost of pensions rose from $120,000 to $1.4 million.

The War of 1812 brought more veterans to consider

Congress Takes Action

When Congress authorized the establishment of the Bureau of Pensions in 1833, it was
the first administrative unit dedicated solely to the assistance of veterans. Under the 1832 Act that established the Bureau,   Revolutionary War pensions, which until then were given only to regular Army veterans—the Continentals—or disabled veterans, were authorized for all who had served at least six months in any of the military forces during the war. For the most part, this meant those who had served in the various state militias, though it also included naval personnel, state line troops, and certain contract civilians such as teamsters. The depositions taken to substantiate the required service are a remarkable record in themselves, providing eyewitness accounts of the Revolution drawn from them reveals. The depositions, however, are more than a collection of personal accounts of service—as fascinating as these can be. They are rich with data concerning Revolutionary War veterans and their families and a unique record of the life and time of this generation.

Certification that one John Bacon
 was eligible to receive a pension
for Revolutionary War service.

 Veterans enrich our History

It is no small final irony also that our knowledge of the American Revolution is filled out by the accounts of the wartime experiences of the Revolutionary War soldiers. Because records of that war were sparse and fragmented, it was incumbent on veterans or their families to justify pension applications. These accounts, although often spotty or sometimes spurious, provided a unique insight into the conflict as seen by those who fought it. In a sense, the veterans helped portray the war they fought to posterity. And for that, as well as their service, we should thank them.

Honor All Those Who Served - especially our First Patriots

Honor Our Veterans

Shallow Ford

A Humble Crossing

The Shallow Ford, about 15 miles west of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, is a shallow part of the Yadkin River that, during colonial times, provided a safe crossing for travelers. The ford is formed by a sand and gravel bar. Upstream, a stretch of hard rock crosses the river, and below this rock, the gradient lessens, which weakens the current and deposits sediment, creating the bar that makes up the crossing. It served as a natural game crossing and fish trap used by the Native Americans. 

By 1748, six families had settled near the ford. Within two years, a ferry and tavern operated there. Soon after, Moravians settled nearby and built the first road to the ford, with several others following over the years, making it a kind of transportation hub. By the time of the American Revolution, the Shallow Ford was an important crossing point for travelers. Although the Yadkin River could be crossed at other fords and ferries, heavier wagons could only cross at two places: the Trading Ford, near Salisbury (Rowan County), and the Shallow Ford (Surry County). Several roads converged on both sides of the river. This modest crossing played a small but significant role in shaping the outcome of the war.

Shallow Ford

A Southern Strategy

Gen Cornwallis

The year 1780 was to be a comeback year for the British in North America with their shift to a "southern strategy." And it initially proved to be a successful and effective plan. By the fall of 1780, the British commander in the south, General Charles Cornwallis, moved north into North Carolina after taking control of most of Georgia and South Carolina. The final phase of the grand strategy was to dominate the entire south before moving north into Virginia. He had established his headquarters in Charlotte, where bands of Loyalists gathered to support the crown.

Loyalist Militia gathered with the arrival of Cornwallis

The absence of local patriot militia groups that had gone to King's Mountain created a vacuum for Loyalists to rise and cause chaos in their counties. In Surry County, local Loyalist brothers Gideon and Hezekiah Wright gathered hundreds of Tories who started taking revenge on the properties of absent patriots and killing those who opposed them. On October 3rd and 8th, they attacked patriots in Richmond, the county seat, where they also killed the county sheriff.

Western NC and Surrey Co in 1780

When news spread of the Loyalist uprising, patriots from nearby areas began to mobilize to stop them. The news of the surprise defeat of the renowned Major Patrick Ferguson at King's Mountain helped energize the patriots, who had been subdued by Cornwallis's maneuver north. Now things were beginning to change. 

Patriot militia General William Lee Davidson now believed that the local Tories intended to join Lord Cornwallis's forces in Charlotte. He sent fifty men from Charlotte, along with two companies of patriot militia from Salisbury. They were joined by 160 men from Montgomery County, Virginia, under Major Joseph Cloyd (who had come to the Carolinas to fight the now-deceased Ferguson). All of the converging patriots came under the leadership of Cloyd.

A Place of Battle

Competing militias would clash in a small but pivotal battle
along the Yadkin River at Shallow Ford

All this activity reached a boiling point on October 14, when a group of 600 Loyalists led by Colonel Gideon Wright crossed the Yadkin River en route to join General Cornwallis in Charlotte. Early Saturday morning, October 14, Cloyd's force of 350 men waited on the west side of a small stream near the Shallow Ford crossing of the Yadkin River. Around 9:30, they spotted the Loyalist force that had terrorized the county for weeks. The Loyalists, numbering between 400 and 900, crossed the Yadkin and headed west along Mulberry Fields Road. A shout of "Tory! Tory!" went up among the patriots. From across the creek, they heard similar cries of "Rebel! Rebel!"

NC patriot militia

The patriots deployed and quickly formed battle lines. Volleys were exchanged. One Captain James Bryan, of the notorious Tory Bryan clan, who led the front of the Loyalist forces, was swiftly killed. Five rifle balls went through him and his horse. The patriots advanced toward the ford as the Loyalists retreated and regrouped. Captain Henry Francis of the Virginia militia was shot through the head and fell dead a few steps from his son, Henry. His other son, John, took careful aim and fired at the Loyalist who had killed his father. 

Despite being outnumbered, the patriots soon gained the advantage, and several more Loyalists fell. After another quick exchange of fire, the Loyalists retreated chaotically across the Yadkin, shouting, "We are whipped, we are whipped." Enraged patriots beat the wounded Loyalists to death after their comrades had fled. A black Loyalist named Ball Turner continued to fire at the patriots. An angry group of patriots found his position and riddled him with musket balls. The Loyalists soon made good their escape. Captain Henry Francis of the Whigs lost his life, and four others were wounded. The Loyalists suffered about fifteen killed. The engagement lasted less than an hour.

Shallow Ford Battle Marker

Aftermath

As the engagement ended, a relief party of three hundred militia under Colonel John Peasley arrived, along with Colonel Joseph Williams of Surrey County. Williams had heard the musket fire from his nearby home. The next day, Major General William Smallwood arrived at Salem with about 150 horsemen, thirty infantry, and three wagons. Smallwood, a Marylander, had been put in charge of all North Carolina militia. 

As a colonel in 1776, Smallwood had commanded the renowned Maryland Line on Long Island and is featured in my novel of that campaign, The Patriot Spy. Smallwood had left Guilford Courthouse the previous day. Seeing that the local force had defeated the Loyalists, he launched his men in pursuit of those who had fled. As a result of Shallow Ford, the Wright brothers' Loyalist forces in Surry County were effectively neutralized for the duration of the war. Hezekiah Wright himself was later shot and wounded in his own home. His brother Gideon fled to the safety of Charlestown, where he died on August 9, 1782.

General William Smallwood

The results of the double defeats at King's Mountain and Shallow Ford dealt a major blow to Cornwallis: patriot morale surged along with their numbers, while demoralized North Carolina Loyalists were never able to rally such a force again. Cornwallis had to retreat into South Carolina for the winter. His grand strategy was delayed by a year, with even more serious implications for any hope of a British victory.

Fittingly, the Shallow Ford played a minor role the following year when, on 7 & 8 February, Cornwallis's army crossed it in the legendary pursuit of General Nathanael Greene during the maneuvers that led to the Battle of Guilford Court House on 15 March 1781.