Chatterton Hill

A War of Maneuver

The campaign of conquest in New York involved both land and sea maneuvers. In the late summer of 1776, the British landed on Long Island and pushed the Continental Army back to the Island of New York (Manhattan), where they faced a stalemate at Harlem Heights.

After the fighting at Harlem Heights, General George Washington’s Continental Army continued to hold onto upper Manhattan. By mid-October, Washington learned that the British were again on the move, planning to land in what is now Westchester County and surround him. Washington moved most of his forces across King's Bridge, leaving a garrison of about 1,500 men under General Nathanael Greene to hold Fort Washington. 

The British landed at Pell’s Point, and a cat-and-mouse game ensued as their advance was slowed by a series of brave American riflemen's holding actions. Eventually, Washington decided to stand against the British, who were pushing west toward the North (Hudson) River, which would cut Washington off from his supply line. He established a defensive position in the hills of White Plains, where the terrain would favor a defensive stand. The armies were roughly evenly matched, though Washington’s force of 14,500 men was far less trained and equipped than Howe’s force of 13,00 British regulars and Hessian professionals.

Gen George Washington's initial overlook
of Chatterton Hill gave the British an opportunity

A Place of Battle

Present-day White Plains offers few reminders of the American Revolution. In this Westchester County suburb of New York, office buildings and a bustling downtown area are surrounded by residential neighborhoods. It was in White Plains that the youthful version of your author took the road test for his driver’s license. At the time, I, like the thousands who live and work in the city, had no idea that nearby was once a bitterly contested battlefield.

Washington's HQ was at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains

Washington Decides to Stand His Ground

Col Joseph Spencer

By October 28, 1776, Washington’s forces occupied a crescent-shaped three-mile line stretching from the Bronx River to the east to the Croton River to the west. Washington set up his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains and chose a defensive position fortified with two lines of entrenchments. The trenches were dug on elevated terrain, with the right flank protected by swamps near the Bronx River and steep hills further back serving as a retreat. Divisions under Israel Putnam and William Heath were positioned on the right and left flanks. Washington himself held the center. Beyond the right flank of this line was Chatterton Hill, which dominated the ground over which the British would have to advance. Interestingly, Washington initially only posted some militia companies under Connecticut Colonel Joseph Spencer to guard this strategic piece of terrain. He would soon need to send more troops.

White Plains

Sir William Howe

Around mid-morning, news reached Washington that the British were approaching in two columns along the East Chester Road. When they arrived, the British army deployed in an open area about a mile in front of the American line, where their formation was clearly visible to the defenders. Was this an attempt by British commander Sir William Howe to intimidate the Americans and lower their morale? Who knows what the delay cost him in real terms. Could another Bunker Hill be on the horizon? That had always been Howe’s fear since he played a key role in Britain’s costly victory outside Boston. Combined with his hope for reconciliation with the rebels, it seemed to hold him back from launching a massive attack that might have cost both sides greatly.

Seize the Good Ground

This time, Howe made a series of smart decisions. He scanned the American defenses ahead of him and realized he had enough manpower and firepower to launch a frontal assault. However, Howe quickly recognized there was another option - a way to move Washington without causing a bloodbath. The lightly guarded high ground known as Chatterton Hill, just to Washington’s right, is the key to the battlefield. Taking control of that would secure victory over the Americans. Howe discussed with his staff and decided that the main attack would target Chatterton Hill, while the rest of the army would keep the main American line busy. He began preparing to assault the hill, assigning the task to General Alexander Leslie (see the Yankee Doodle Spies blog on Leslie), with two British infantry regiments supported by Hessian troops. Soon, a fierce but inconclusive battle would unfold.

View of White Plains from Chatterton Hill

Finally, Washington recognized the danger he faced if the British seized the key terrain. He hurried to reinforce the heights with another 2,000 men under Colonel Joseph Reed. The critical outpost on Chatterton Hill was eventually held by about 4,000 men under Colonel Alexander McDougall. His force included two New England militia regiments under Colonel Rufus Putnam and Spencer's men. Even as Howe and his staff conferred, his Hessian artillery began firing on the hilltop. A force of 1500 skirmishers under Colonel Joseph Spencer was positioned along the front. The American defenses seemed strong. But when the British finally launched their attack, they quickly pushed aside the skirmishers, who scattered before the advancing troops. However, the arrival of McDougall and his brigade helped rally the defenders, and a defensive line was formed, with the militia on the right and the Continentals along the top of the hill.

Washington rushes reinforcements to the heights

Although he now faced a well-orchestrated onslaught, McDougall made a stubborn defense of it. He managed to hold Leslie’s column at the ford, repelling several attempts to cross the Bronx River. In response, Howe ordered more men, while a force of Hessian infantry under Colonel Johann Rall, supported by British dragoons, moved on the American right flank. The Hessians managed to cross the river and charge up the steep slope, but the determined and well-positioned Americans drove them back. Not to be outdone by the Rebellen, Rall rallied his men and organized a second attack with additional firepower. The artillery fired at the Americans defending the crest of the hill, causing the militia troops to run. However, despite the intense barrage, the Continentals stubbornly held on until the Hessians finally turned their right flank, forcing them back as well.

Hessians advancing under fire

A Timely Retreat, An Untimely Pause

With his flank exposed and crumbling, Washington ordered a retreat, and the Americans withdrew from the hill. Unfortunately for the British, William Howe stays true to form and does not follow up on his success with a vigorous pursuit that might have destroyed the Continental Army and ended the war. Instead, he waits for reinforcements from the rest of his army and simply bivouacs his men on Chatterton Hill. This gives Washington time to move his army to stronger positions at nearby North Castle a few days later. Although the Americans lost the Chatterton Heights along with approximately one hundred thirty killed and wounded, taking the heights cost Howe around two hundred fifty irreplaceable British and Hessian troops killed and wounded. In a sense, Howe came out ahead in that Washington ultimately evacuated New York and abandoned the defenders of Fort Washington to their ultimate demise. But the war of posts would now evolve into a war of maneuver, this time across the Jerseys.

A  Halloween Connection?

Little remembered in history, the action at Chatterton Hill has a link to American folklore and the spooky celebration of Halloween. Washington Irving’s story, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, and the film, Sleepy Hollow, focus on the haunting by a “Headless Hessian Horseman.” According to some accounts, Irving based the story on an incident during the Battle of White Plains when a Hessian soldier, decapitated by a cannon shot on Chatterton Hill, roams the Westchester night seeking vengeance. So, Chatterton Hill leaves a legacy of little military importance but an eerie contribution to American folklore… oh yes, and your humble author passed his road test - first time.

A Hessian's death at Chatterton Hill may have inspired
one of America's earliest legends - Sleepy Hollow

Fort Mifflin

A War of Posts

Over eight years of struggle, the American Revolutionary War shifted from guerrilla warfare to limited battles, and sometimes to maneuver warfare. However, the demands of 18th-century fighting across a vast area filled with rough terrain, dense forests, and uncooperative rivers made it almost always a war of posts. A war of posts is similar to a chess match, with carefully placed defensive positions designed to protect supply lines, stop an enemy advance, and control vital regions. 

Think of the game, Risk, but with real people, sweat, and effort, not small wooden or plastic pieces. The fight for North America included several key battles featuring fixed fortifications. In many ways, these defined the war: West Point and Ticonderoga immediately come to mind. But many battles also involved temporary or hastily constructed forts. These were just as important. Fort Moultrie, Stony Point, and Yorktown serve as notable examples.

Fort Ticonderoga

The Siege

The war featured several key sieges. Most were short-lived, with one side surrendering or the other breaking off the siege due to outside factors like weather, supplies, or reinforcements. Fort Stanwix, Savannah, Charleston, and Newport are examples. Even a brief defense of a position could buy crucial time for a commander to gather forces, regroup, maneuver for advantage, or simply escape. 

That’s why, when a commander faced a long siege or was forced to storm a position, they often treated the defenders and any civilians left behind harshly. Ironically, when the British treated defenders roughly, it fueled rebel propaganda, which played a significant role in the conflict. Not only was the American public watching closely, but the whole world was paying attention. That’s a topic for another post, however.

Fort Stanwix

Fort Mifflin

Arguably, the longest active defense of a post under siege in the war was also one of the least celebrated. We will try to shift the focus toward celebration. Fort Mifflin is located on the Delaware River, in what is now South Philadelphia, at a place called Mud Island. Construction on the fort began in 1772 to block access to the city. 

Ironically, the original construction was overseen by the famous British engineer Captain John Montressor. The fort was completed in 1777 under the leadership of American Major General Thomas Mifflin, for whom it is named. It protected a series of water barriers that stretched across the river to its sister fort, Fort Mercer, in New Jersey.

Maj Gen Thomas Mifflin
finished construction of the fort that bears his name

Most Formidable Defenses

A fort guarding a sea approach needed more than just strong walls and good firing positions. So, Philadelphia built a series of chevaux de frise, placed in "tiers" beneath the waters of the Delaware between Forts Mercer and Mifflin. They were constructed within wooden-framed boxes, 30 feet square, made from massive timbers lined with pine boards. The engineers sunk these frames into the riverbed. 

Each box was filled with 20 to 40 tons of stone to keep it in place. Each frame had two or three large timbers tipped with iron spikes set underwater and angled downstream. These chevaux created a tough obstacle that could trap unwary ships. The chain of chevaux had gaps so friendly shipping could pass through. The locations of these safe passages were tightly kept secret. Any British ship not caught on the spikes or caught in the chain still faced fire from the forts themselves.

Sketch of chevaux crates filled
with stones

A Strategic Position

The British captured Philadelphia in September 1777 through an overland campaign that avoided the fortified Delaware approach. However, the British commander in chief, General William Howe, now faced the urgency of establishing a communication line to the sea. He needed the protection of the Royal Navy and an open supply route, or his position in Philadelphia could become a liability. 

The British commander recognized that their control of the sea was an invaluable advantage over the Americans, which had to be leveraged to the fullest. Howe's brother, Admiral Richard "Black Dick" Howe, commander of the Royal Navy in America, had already started weakening American defenses downriver. But brother Billy couldn't wait for their arrival; he needed to advance overland against Fort Mifflin and hold the navy at Fort Mercer on the Jersey side.

Control of the lower Delaware River and bay
was crucial to British success

Doughty Defenders

Samuel Smith

But the American commander in chief, General George Washington, also recognized the importance of the Delaware. After being driven from near the capital following his defeat at Germantown, Washington prepared for a lengthy series of operations aimed at disrupting British efforts to strengthen their control over Philadelphia. 

On September 23, Washington sent Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Smith of the 4th Maryland Regiment with a detachment of Continentals to the fort on Mud Island in the Delaware River. 

Readers may recall I featured this first patriot in an earlier Yankee Doodle Spies post. Smith's initial force numbered 200 soldiers, along with Major Robert Ballard of Virginia, Major Simeon Thayer of Rhode Island, and Captain Samuel Treat of the Continental Artillery. Determined to hinder British plans at any cost, the Continentals began preparing defenses and calling in more troops. 

Eventually, they would have 400 men, which was far from enough to properly garrison a fort of Mifflin's size. This problem was similar to issues faced by other forces trying to hold forts Ticonderoga and Washington. Still, Smith and his men chose to make the best of the fort.

Fort Mifflin plans

The British Approach

John Montressor

General Howe ordered a move against nearby Providence Island on October 10, 1777. Washington's land forces resisted but were quickly driven off, and soon heavy siege guns were positioned to face the American fort. Despite its strength, Fort Mifflin had not been heavily fortified against a threat from Philadelphia. 

Ironically, Captain John Montresor, who had designed and built Fort Mifflin, planned and constructed the siege works used against his own fort. The situation was certainly against the rebels. Soon, heavy cannonballs started crashing into the American positions. The intense pounding on that side of the fort was horrific, but the Americans fought valiantly, inflicting heavy damage on several British ships attempting to bypass upriver. 

The British mounted guns on floats, creating water batteries that moved closer to the besieged outpost. American casualties increased, and supplies dwindled during the month of relentless bombardment and hardship.

The Royal Navy Engages

"Black Dick" Howe -
so named for a swarthy complexion

But Billie Howe's brother, "Black Dick," would have the final say. He finally managed to unleash the Royal Navy. On November 10, a floating battery with twenty-two heavy 24-pound guns came within 40 yards of the fort. 

At close range, the British gunners could do as much damage as they wanted. This ended up being the heaviest bombardment of the Revolutionary War. Shot and shell shattered walls and buildings. The defenders suffered severe injuries, with limbs torn away or crushed. 

The battle was leaning towards the besiegers, but Smith and the defenders were determined to hold the fort. Cold weather was arriving early, and if they could hold until the Delaware froze, the British supply line might be cut, forcing Howe's army to abandon the recently captured capital. 

On the British side, news of Major General John Burgoyne's army’s disastrous surrender at Saratoga increased pressure on both Howe brothers. A victory over the stubborn defenders could help boost the sagging morale. The stakes were high for both sides!

The Pennsylvania Navy (yes, they had a navy) came to the aid of the forts guarding the Delaware approaches. Commodore John Hazelwood, with a sizable fleet of galleys, sloops, and fire-vessels, launched several raids on British positions onshore and constantly harassed British river operations while patrolling the waters around the fort. But British naval strength eventually prevailed. Rebel resistance persisted. Cold, ill, and starving, the garrison, reduced to much less than 200 of the original 400-450 men, refused to surrender. 

Under the leadership of French Major Francois de Fleury, an engineer of remarkable energy, the Americans worked each night to repair the damage from the day’s combat. Fleury himself was wounded in the battle. A British ship of the line and sloop-of-war both ran aground under heavy fire from Mifflin's defenders. However, British naval superiority virtually guaranteed an unfavorable outcome. Behind the cover of the intense fire from the big guns of the floating battery, the British naval vessels closed in, and soon British marines were sniping at the fort from high in the rigging. With nearly all their guns knocked out, the Americans were running out of options - but not out of spirit.

Fort Mifflin, aka Mudd Island
was the key to the Delaware

The Final British Assault

Clear weather on November 15 gave the British a chance to deliver a final burst of heat. They sent two ships, Vigilant and Fury, armed with nineteen guns, along the backchannel west of Fort Mifflin. At the same time, three large ships with 158 cannons anchored directly off the fort, in the main channel of the Delaware. To the east, three more vessels with about 51 guns guarded Mifflin from all sides. A trap of smoke, fire, and iron.

The Royal Navy had to commit
massive resources to subdue the fort

To oppose this British juggernaut, the defenders of Fort Mifflin had only ten cannons remaining. Soon, hundreds of cannonballs began pummeling what was left of the fort. The large-caliber 18- and 24-pound balls tore through the defenders in another burst of smoke and fire. During the peak of the bombardment, about 1000 shots were fired into the fort. 

To worsen the defenders' plight, British Marines climbed to the crow’s nest of Vigilant and tossed grenades at the fort's defenders. The defenders fought bravely but suffered for it as casualties increased. They returned fire until all their guns were silenced by the heavier British shot. Lieutenant Colonel Smith was seriously wounded and had to be evacuated. The end was near.

The End

Nightfall found the surviving defenders exhausted, cold, and out of ammunition. But not out of options. The new commander of the fort, Major Simeon Thayer, decided to evacuate the now indefensible Mifflin under the cover of darkness. The garrison rowed their way with muffled oars to Fort Mercer. Forty men volunteered to stay behind and set fire to what was left. 

Their work done, around midnight, they also crossed the Delaware to the safety of New Jersey. But Thayer decided on one last act of resistance. So as the last of Mifflin's valiant defenders rowed to safety, they would see it ablaze - but they would see the flag still flying in a final gesture of defiance.

The unusual-looking flag that flew over Fort Mifflin during
the long siege, and in a final act of defiance

The Result

During the siege, about 400 American soldiers held off more than two thousand British troops and 250 ships. The Americans suffered over 250 killed and wounded and lost the fort. However, the time and resources spent by the Howe brothers to capture the fort and control the Delaware allowed Washington to move his army to White Marsh and ultimately reach the safety of winter quarters at Valley Forge, where a new American army was formed.

A new American army would emerge from
the hard winter at Valley Forge

Aftermath

Fort Mifflin was rebuilt after the war and served as a U.S. base for many years, providing one of the strategic harbor defenses for Philadelphia. Later, it became a historic site. Today, only the white stone walls of the original Fort Mifflin remain. The pockmarks in these walls testify to the intensity of the British bombardment in 1777. Local residents refer to this siege and bombardment as the Battle of Mud Island. However, this once-critical fort in the defense of the Delaware and Philadelphia never saw military use again.

The King's Rake

Beauing, belling, dancing, drinking,

Breaking windows, cursing, sinking

Every raking, never thinking,

Live the Rakes of Mallow,

Spending faster than it comes,

Beating waiter's bailiffs, duns,

Bacchus' true begotten sons,

Live the Rakes of Mallow.

And so begin the lyrics of the mid-18th-century song that remains in today's culture as an international classic, "The Rakes of Mallow." This song tells of the rakes from the farming town of Mallow, about 20 miles north of the city of Cork. What exactly is a rake? Although Mallow is a farming town, we aren't talking about the gardening tool. The other rake is an old-fashioned term for a person who indulges in drinking, gambling, womanizing, and rowdy behavior — traits both celebrated and condemned in Georgian England. This brings us to the rake in this story—the complex and never uninteresting George Hanger...

The Rake at Dawn

George Hanger was born near Berkshire, England, around 1751. His father was Gabriel, the 3rd Baron Coleraine, an Irish peer. As the third son of an upper-class noble, it was almost destined that he would pursue a military career. Hanger was educated at Eton and then spent a year at the University of Göttingen in Hannover, Germany. 

A bright student, Hanger had a rakish appearance and enjoyed the proverbial wine, women, and gambling—not necessarily in that order. He allegedly fought three duels by the age of 20 and was reputed to be an excellent shot. While in Germany, Hanger observed the legendary Prussian Army of Frederick the Great during maneuvers and decided then and there to follow a military path. 

In January 1771, he was appointed an ensign in the 1st Foot Guards, a prestigious regiment of the household troops. Hanger performed well but resigned after being passed over for a promotion just four years later. Early signs of his lifestyle began to surface.

George Hanger

Soldier for Hire

Hanger's German contacts served him well, and he soon received a captain's commission in the Feldjäger Korps of the forces of the Landgrave (Elector) of Hesse-Kassel, another elite unit. I think we know where this is going... It was as part of this group of young Teutonic aristocrats that Hanger sailed for America when the Landgrave "rented" his troops to King George III. 

Leaving Portsmouth in March 1776, young Hanger arrived just in time for some of the most "fun" episodes for crown forces during the entire eight-year struggle. He played a role in the relentless campaigns that swept the rebels from New York and the Jerseys in 1776, as well as in the less glamorous but equally brutal skirmishes of 1777. His performance was so impressive that he took command of an elite Hessian Jaeger (light infantry) company recruited from all the Hessian regiments in the army. 

According to reports, Hanger distinguished himself in the months that followed. His unit undertook much of the screening, patrolling, and small-scale fighting around Kingsbridge, Spuyten Duyvil, and Westchester. Around this time, he learned that his estate back in Britain had gone into foreclosure, and through a series of misfortunes, he found himself in dire financial straits. Our young hero had become a self-proclaimed "soldier of fortune,"

Hanger became a master of light infantry

An Unlikely Spy

When the British occupation of Newport, Rhode Island, ended in 1779, Hanger was chosen by the British commander in chief, General Henry Clinton, to undertake a daring reconnaissance mission to see if the American occupiers had left their defenses vulnerable for reconquest. He sailed 150 miles north from the mouth of New York Harbor on a frigate and led a twelve-man longboat into dangerous waters during a bold night raid. He captured a prisoner and returned to New York with him. Hanger was later criticized in American papers when the prisoner unexpectedly fell ill and died.

An unlikely Hanger sails on a secret mission
 to Rhode Island: espionage

Moving South

Patrick Ferguson
 - a badass

Later, Hanger took command of a mix of rifle and musket units and was seconded to the renowned "counter-guerrilla" Major Patrick Ferguson, one of the tough British officers of the war whose death at King's Mountain signaled the beginning of the end in the South. But I digress. With Ferguson, Hanger sailed to the Carolinas under General Henry Clinton in the spring of 1780, marking the start of the "southern strategy." After a brief stint as Clinton's aide-de-camp and then inspector of militia under Ferguson, the ever-adaptable Hanger managed to transfer to Banastre Tarleton's British Legion. The two hard-drinking, rough-and-tumble aristocrats hit it off, and Tarleton made Hanger his deputy. Hanger joined the green-jacketed band of Loyalist regulars that would become infamous under Tarleton.

Infamous Banastre Tarleton
Hanger's mentor and commander

The Legion

Lord Charles Cornwallis

The Legion led Major General Charles Cornwallis's invasion of North Carolina. When Tarleton was struck down by yellow fever, Hanger took command. Although an accomplished infantry fighter and dependable deputy, Hanger struggled with the cavalry, which was the vital strike force of Tarleton's Legion. 

He allowed himself to be ambushed at Wahab Plantation on September 21, 1780, where a partisan force under American Colonel William Davie attacked early in the evening. Surprised and overwhelmed, Hanger suffered 12 killed, 47 wounded, and almost 100 valuable horses captured. 

Tasked with leading the British advance against Charlotte less than a week later, he faltered again. This time, he let his horsemen become separated from their supporting infantry. Once more, Davie outmaneuvered him when Hanger's cavalry charged recklessly into the town without support. 

Hanger led several assaults against Davie's American riflemen, who were defending behind a wall. Hanger's men started to fall to the precise fire. Cornwallis himself had to step in to stabilize the situation. Hanger was severely wounded during the fight and later contracted yellow fever. Sick and injured, he was sent to the Bahamas (of all places) to recover.

Hanger led the Legion's cavalry to savage fighting and defeat
at Charlotte

Dead Ender?

Guy Carleton

When he recovered sufficiently, Hanger returned to New York in the summer of 1781 and resumed garrison duties. As the key to Britain's control over North America, New York was the center of attention, and Hanger found himself right back in the middle of things. He also returned to a city filled with bars, brothels, and rooms for him to enjoy during his downtime from drilling troops or patrolling the outskirts. 

One might think our young rake had the best of both worlds during this time. Ever the soldier, he sailed with General Clinton's relief force, aiming to rescue Cornwallis's trapped army at Yorktown. Upon hearing of the surrender, he went back to the city with the rest of the fleet. 

As peace negotiations settled on terms, Hanger took on another role: resettling members of the Legion. For that, he made a trip to Halifax, Nova Scotia, to find land and housing for the loyalists who chose not to go to England. Mission accomplished, he returned to New York. One has to see George as a proverbial dead-ender. He stayed with one of the last British units to evacuate the city, sailing with the final British commander and governor in North America, General Guy Carleton.

Hanger, "Forrest Gump-like," manages to
witness the American Revolution's climax

The Bad Boy of Georgian England

Once home, Hanger resumed the life of a flamboyant party boy. He became a social companion to another rake, the Prince of Wales, who later became King George IV. The prince enjoyed Hanger's rakish ways. Hanger seemed to have become famous simply for being famous — the subject of much satire and ridicule in what would be today's tabloids. His reckless lifestyle landed him in debtor's prison, where he spent two years (1798-1800). While in prison, he turned to writing and produced his memoirs there.

Hanger and his buddy, the Prince of Wales
attended many a party

When he left, he became a coal merchant (in which he was quite successful) but continued his addiction to gambling and partying around London. Throughout, Hanger flaunted contemporary mores, cavorting openly with women of all kinds, keeping a peculiar collection of dogs, cats, and monkeys, and generally thumbing his nose at the upper crust and middle class. One of his celebrated exploits was arranging a cross-country race between a flock of turkeys and a flock of geese!

Cartoon satire of Hanger

At the same time, he learned to leverage some of his strengths as a pamphleteer—similar to bloggers today. Reinventing himself as a subject matter expert, he published pamphlets on military topics, gambling, hunting, and shooting. Hanger engaged in public disputes over military policy during the Napoleonic Wars. He also wrote humorous advice columns on various subjects, most famously about the fairer sex. His antics and opinions were closely followed by the media of his time. In 1814, he was offered the barony of Coleraine but declined it to continue his "celebrated" lifestyle in London.

Cartoon satire of Hanger

The Legacy

Cartoon satire of Hanger

Despite his hard lifestyle, Hanger kept up his reputation as a notorious figure in town, a military expert, and a celebrated eccentric until his death in London on March 31, 1824. He left behind a second wife, possibly his housekeeper, and their son, who was denied his father's peerage. George Hanger was undoubtedly one of the more complex men of his era and certainly one of the most intriguing, if not amusing.

 Eventually, his notoriety caught up with him. The king distanced himself from him, high society shunned him, and the press ridiculed him. Yet, in many ways, he embodied his class and era: a curious mix of breeding, talent, courage, rapacity, and culture. It's a pity he didn't settle in America...

George Hanger, 4th Baron Coleraine?

The Spy of Massachusetts

In my last blog post, I discussed the origin of the term "Spy" and hinted at its use as a naming rubric for 18th-century newspapers. Now, a deeper dive into the subject of newspapers of the American Revolution.

A Literate Frontier

By the mid-1760s, there were 24 weekly newspapers in the 12 colonies, and satirical attacks on the government became common. Weekly newspapers in major cities and towns were strong symbols of patriotism, although a few Loyalist papers still existed.

Twelve of the British colonies had 24 newspapers 

Spy as a Newspaper

So, we can see that using the name “Spy” for a newspaper matches the origin of the word and its broader use. A newspaper’s staff and contributors observe, question, watch, and follow closely. At least, that is the hope of the public, who rely on their objectivity and fairness. As American society became more literate, the influence of the press increased.

Turbulent Times

The turbulent years between 1775 and 1783 were a time of great trial and disturbance for newspapers. Interruption, suppression, and lack of support significantly hindered their growth. Although there were forty-three newspapers in the United States when the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, compared with thirty-seven at the time of the Battle of Lexington in 1775, only about a dozen published regularly during that period. Curiously, not one newspaper in the larger coastal cities—Boston, New York, and Philadelphia—published uninterrupted throughout the war.

Voices of Rebellion

Obstacles

The nature of the rebellion contributed to some of these issues. When the colonial forces were in control, Loyalist papers were suppressed. Conversely, during the British occupation, patriot papers were either dispersed, discontinued, or temporarily converted into loyalist publications until the patriots regained control. As a result, some newspapers from coastal cities moved inland to continue publishing. War-related challenges led to logistical problems, including shortages of paper, ink, and other essential materials. This led to the production of poor-quality papers or the skipping of issues to conserve resources.

Papers often ran political cartoons and caricatures
that bordered on the absurd 

The Massachusetts Spy

Let’s examine the paper that exemplifies the kind of “Spy” we are discussing. Isaiah Thomas's Massachusetts Spy, published in Boston and Worcester, was often close to being shut down from its founding in 1770 through 1776 and during the American Revolution. Between 1771 and 73, the Spy featured writings from several anonymous political commentators who called themselves "Centinel," "Mucius Scaevola," and "Leonidas." They shared similar views on issues, kept patriot concerns on the front page, and responded to attacks from pro-government papers. Rhetorical combat was a patriot strategy that explained current issues and fostered patriotism without outright rebellion. The columnists addressed the colonists as an independent people, linked to Britain only through a voluntary legal compact. The Spy soon expanded its radicalism to a logical conclusion. Later, when articles from the Spy were reprinted in other papers, the entire country was prepared for Tom Paine's influential patriotic statement: Common Sense in 1776.

A critical voice in its heyday

Who was Isaiah Thomas?

We are not talking about a legendary NBA player but about a legendary newspaperman. Our Isaiah Thomas was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and apprenticed in July 1756 to Zechariah Fowle, a Boston printer, with whom he formed a partnership in 1770. This led to the publication of the Massachusetts Spy. The partnership dissolved after a few months, but Thomas continued publishing alone. He had a motto for his paper: “Open to all parties, but influenced by none.” Sort of the “Fair & Balanced” of its day. The Spy initially published three times a week, but under Thomas’s sole ownership, it became a semi-weekly, and then, in 1771, a weekly. The Spy championed the Whig cause early on, which led to the British government's attempt to suppress it. Massachusetts’s last Royal governor, Thomas Hutchinson, ordered the attorney general to prosecute Thomas, but the grand jury failed to find cause for an indictment.

Isaiah Thomas holds an essential place in America's
publishing pantheon

More Flash than Bang?

The overall spirit of the era generated many mottoes, editorials, letters, and poems. At the beginning of the struggle, both editorials and communications called for united resistance to oppression, praised patriotism, and condemned tyranny. As time passed, these patriotic appeals grew stronger and shaped public opinion. Later, the idea of independence took shape, and debates about government were held. Sadly (or perhaps fortunately), enthusiasm for the cause often overshadowed journalistic standards, leading to exaggerated or even false reports.

A Struggle of Ideas

Despite their flaws, the newspapers of the Revolution were a powerful force in uniting people's feelings, sparking a shared sense of purpose, interest, and vision among the separate colonies, and fostering the determination to see the war through to a successful conclusion. They were often more focused than the people themselves and carried a significant share of the responsibility for inspiring and sustaining the often discouraged and indifferent public spirit. In this way, they played a vital role in guiding the thirteen struggling colonies through a long and seemingly impossible fight that resulted in an unlikely victory.

The struggle of ideas led to and buttressed the
struggle for independence

Why Spy?

During my years in US Army intelligence, I had the bright idea of writing a spy novel. Half the people I worked with thought of the same idea. Some even tried to write drafts. But very few finished, and to my knowledge, even fewer got published. As a long-time student of history, I wanted to create a historical portrait, not just craft a spy story. 

Until recently, few Americans knew that, besides being the top soldier during the Glorious Cause, George Washington was also the country's leading spymaster. However, we in Army Intelligence were aware of his secret role. So, when I decided to start writing my spy novel(s), I chose to blend spy themes with fictional versions of James Bond set against the American Revolution. 

The Yankee Doodle Spies series celebrates—tales of men and women who fought the secret war—gathering intelligence to give Washington an edge over the mighty British land and sea forces.

George Washington was the great case officer
of his day

Origins of the Term, Spy

Words have meaning. So let’s examine the word, Spy – the key term in this series. Where does it originate from, and what does it mean? According to one source, the word comes from Old French and other European languages.

Benjamin Tallmadge coordinated
Washington's spies

A Noun

The word 'Spy,' as a noun, dates back to the mid-13th century and originally meant "one who spies on another." This comes from the Old French word 'Espie,' meaning a "spy, look-out, or scout." In Middle English, 'spy' derived from the shortening of the Old French word 'Espie,' which included 'espying,' 'espier,' and 'espy.' The Old French term itself has Germanic roots, originating from an Indo-European root shared by the Latin word 'specere,' which means to behold or look.

Old French was connected to Latin

A Verb

To spy, the verb has the same mid-13th century origin and meant to watch secretly. This originated from the Old French verb espier, which meant "observe, watch closely, spy on, or find out," likely from the Frankish spehon or another Germanic source. The term spehon appears in Proto-Germanic and Old High German, where it also meant "to look out for or scout." Old English had the verb spyrian, meaning "to make a track, go, pursue; ask about, investigate." The related noun was spyrigend, meaning "investigator, inquirer."

Old High German was connected to Frankish and Old French

The Italian verb, spiare, and Spanish espiar also derive from the Germanic root from around 1300 and similarly mean "to catch sight of.” The term evolved into the modern German verb, spähen, meaning "to spy." The word further developed in Middle Dutch to become Spien.

One of many iterations of the Army
Special Agent's Badge 

Interestingly, as I worked with German counterintelligence during the Cold War, I noted that their modern term for a spy is 'Spion,' and espionage is 'Spionage.' The root of the words and their basic sounds remain unchanged. However, pay attention to some other action descriptors in the etymology, such as observe, watch closely, find out, look out, ask about, and so on.

A Curious 18th Century Use

We can see that the term, “to spy,” means learning through observation and, of course, reporting. Now, done clandestinely during wartime, it aligns more closely with the modern definition. However, the term spy once had another use - related to observing and gathering information to report on it. So, it’s not a big leap to connect this terminology to another meaning for the word, “Spy."

"Spy" used a journal

In the 18th century, the term “Spy” was used as the name for major periodicals in colonial and post-colonial America. These publications played a significant role in shaping colonial thought during the struggle for independence before the actual war. We will discuss this in more detail in an upcoming post.