The Iron Colonel

A little-known Hessian Colonel named Johann Gottlieb Rall played a significant role in the course of the American War for Independence. Sadly for him, that course led to his defeat and death. However, this should not diminish the life and service of this German military officer. An experienced Hessian officer, Rall is often portrayed as the unlucky loser of the Battle of Trenton. But he was much more than that. He was the quintessential professional German officer of the mid-18th century: skilled and confident, built from experience.

Advancement

Johann Rall was born in the German principality of Hesse-Kassel in 1720. His father was a captain in the regiment Von Donop. At an early age, the younger Rall joined as a cadet, then became a warrant officer, and finally was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant on August 28th, 1745. Within eight years, he had become a captain and was then promoted to Major on May 7th, 1760, under the command of Major General Bischhausen. In January 1763, he was transferred to the garrison at Stein, where he was appointed Lieutenant Colonel.

On April 22, 1771, now a Colonel, he took command of the Mansbach Infantry Regiment, a renowned unit. Unlike the British army of that time, officers were promoted based on merit rather than by purchasing their ranks. On his path to becoming a colonel, Rall likely served as a platoon leader, a company commander (possibly multiple times), and a staff officer, probably as an adjutant. By age 51, he was a highly experienced and professional military officer—perhaps among the best of his generation.

Early Service

So where did Johann Rall serve to reach the high ranks of regimental command? Actually, Rall's service is almost a detailed record of the wars in the mid-18th century. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession - taking part in campaigns from the Low Countries of Flanders, through the Rhineland, and in Bavaria.

A youthful Rall fought in the War of the Austrian Succession

He even served in Scotland during the Jacobite rising of 1745 – not his last service to the German kings of England. Here, Rall was part of a group of about six thousand Hessian troops under the command of their prince, the Elector, Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. Frederick deployed his forces to support his father-in-law, George II of England.

The battle of Culloden ended the Jacobite Rising

Of course, Rall was there when the big one broke out. Like nearly all European professional soldiers, he saw action in numerous battles during the Seven Years' War (America’s French and Indian War). This global conflict was fought between 1756 and 1763 and involved every major European power. It spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The war involved two main coalitions, one led by Great Britain (along with Prussia, Portugal, Hanover, and smaller German states like Hesse-Kassel), and the other led by France (with allies Austria, Russia, Spain, and Sweden).

Storming a village in the Seven Years War

Most of the professional armies in Europe experienced a period of peace after the Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War. However, Rall managed to stay busy in his chosen profession. From September 1771 to August 1772, he fought for Russia’s Catherine the Great under Count Orlov in the Russo-Turkish War.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1771 was one of many
fought between the two empires

Coming to Amerika

What makes Johann Gottlieb Rall interesting to the Yankee Doodle Spies is his role as a Hessian officer in His Majesty’s service during the American War for Independence.  Upon his return to Germany, Rall received command of a grenadier regiment that bore his name. In 1775, Landgrave Frederick Wilhelm II offered to “rent” several of his professional regiments to the King of England. It is said he used the revenues from such ventures to pay for his patronage of the arts. I guess it was blood for beauty.  And so Rall and the regiment bearing his name embarked for America with a division of German troops under General Wilhelm von Knyphausen.

Knyphaussen’s forces were part of British Major General William Howe’s army that invaded Staten Island, Long Island, New York (Manhattan), Westchester, and the Jerseys in 1776. Rall was noted for his performance under fire on Long Island and again at Fort Washington, where Knyphausen’s Hessians distinguished themselves with audacity, skill, and courage.

Rall's Grenadiers storm a redoubt at Fort Washington

At Fort Washington, Rall led the final assault from the front. One of his men, Private Johann Reuber, recalled him encouraging the grenadiers, "All that are my grenadiers, march forward." Leading the charge, Rall’s grenadiers captured their objective. His grenadiers lost 177 men in the action, a large number of casualties for the period, and a tribute to their courage and audacity, as well as Yankee marksmanship.

Most of these battles were against raw, undisciplined, and poorly supplied troops, although not always. It didn’t take long for the Hessians and Rall himself to come to see the rebellers as beneath respect. In fact, many Hessian officers were perplexed that Howe didn’t strike the "rabble" more aggressively to destroy them. Howe’s slow, careful style of warfare clashed with the aggressive, smash-mouth approach of the sharp German troops and their leaders.

Blitzkrieg turns to Winter Quarters

As General George Washington led his battered army across the cold, snowy New Jersey in December 1776, it seemed like the war was nearly over. The Germans, along with many British officers, believed it was only a matter of days before they would crush Washington and seize the rebel capital. To their disappointment, Howe decided he had done enough for the year. He settled his army into winter quarters, confidently expecting an easy march to Philadelphia in the spring. After all, the rebels had been driven across the Delaware with their tails between their legs, and the morale of the American people was at an all-time low. He was right, too—except for one small problem: General Washington was not in winter quarters.

Gen William Howe put his
army into winter quarters a bit too early

Howe compounded his mistake by dispersing his forces into small garrisons across West Jersey, including Perth Amboy, New Brunswick, Princeton, Trenton, and Bordentown. The weather and the appealingly small, brigade-sized garrisons gave the beleaguered American commander the opportunity he needed. He planned to strike the closest garrisons: Bordentown and Trenton. Bordentown proved to be a missed opportunity, but Trenton was not.

The approximately sixteen hundred Hessians comprising Trenton’s garrison had been under pressure. The Jersey militia had rallied against them. Couriers, patrols, and foraging efforts were attacked. Rall’s officers recommended they fortify Trenton. The town had a comfortable barracks where the troops stayed, but aside from an isolated blockhouse north of the town, they had nothing else. Despite Rall’s professionalism, his contempt for the Americans was evident. He dismissed the suggestions as unnecessary, and he actually stated he dared the Americans to attack so he could crush them. This was not just hubris but a cold, professional calculation. However, it would turn out to be a poor one.

The Trenton garrison had some of the best infantry
of any army of its day

Rall also dismissed the engineer officer sent to help with the defenses. He simply believed his men would overpower any rebel force that approached Trenton. Rall claimed he could be attacked from all sides and would defend from every direction. No redoubts were necessary. However, he did increase patrols, some of which he led himself.

As Christmas neared, British intelligence received word from a spy that the Americans might be planning an attack on Trenton. The British commander in the Jerseys, General James Grant himself, was skeptical of a rebel assault. However, he sent a note to Rall to warn him anyway. Rall scoffed at the idea and dismissed it as alarmist. Besides, he had complete faith and trust in the professionalism of his men and the incompetence of the enemy. The former is usually a good thing; the latter, not so much. Rall stuffed the note in his pocket.

Washington launches his gambit on Christmas Night

Heilige Nacht

Now, in the German world, Christmas Eve is a very big deal—more than Christmas Day. How much “celebrating" actually took place is open to some speculation. Likely, some did. But the real problems the Hessians faced were the weather, the Jersey militia, and frankly, some fatigue. The campaign had been long.

Rall spent Christmas Eve at the Stacey Potts house in Trenton. Unbeknownst to him, his officer of the day, Major Friedrich von Dechow, canceled the next morning’s dawn patrol due to the bad weather. Other officers ordered their troops in outposts to shelter in place as the weather moved in. It was, as they say, a perfect storm. Washington struck Trenton in a surprise early morning attack on Christmas Day 1776. Washington’s 2400 men outnumbered the 1600 defenders. But numbers were not the decisive factor- surprise was.

The Americans depended on the cover of darkness
and bad weather to fuel their surprise

The Element of Surprise

Just after sunrise, one of the Hessian officers sheltering near the outskirts of Trenton, Lieutenant Andreas von Wiederholdt, stepped out of the building he had taken cover in and was surprised to see rebels emerging from the woods around the town. He rallied his platoon and exchanged fire with the approaching troops, but was quickly overwhelmed. By the time the alarm was finally sounded, Trenton was already surrounded on three sides.

Artillery rounds from Henry Knox’s battery began to bombard the town. The Americans had occupied several houses, and as the infantry tried to rally, they were picked off. In the wet snow, the Hessians' return fire was hard to manage due to wet powder and flints.

Knox's Artillery suppressed the Hessian attempt to
counterattack

Surprised, outnumbered, surrounded, and overwhelmed by firepower, the defenders faced a bleak situation. But Hessian discipline was still strong. What you do in training, you will do in combat. The Hessians were well trained. Drummers quickly started beating, and Rall’s regiment rallied. Officers signaled to form ranks. Sergeants and corporals organized the men into lines. Some were only partially dressed or missing some equipment, but they still formed up.

Washington's pincer movement almost bagged the entire garrison

Commands were shouted over the crack of musket shots. But confusion began to turn into order when Rall appeared. He looked tired, some say in his cups, but this is unproven. Rall struggled to mount his horse and rally the troops for a charge that would disperse the rebels like chaff from a scythe. That is how they always did it. They would do it again.

At Fort Washington, Rall summoned his grenadiers to advance with him. They did, and two of the three regiments formed ranks, moving forward with colors flying and drums beating. They would disperse the rebels yet. But this was a different army—well-led and motivated. More importantly, the advancing formation was enfiladed from three sides by Continental infantry firing from behind the cover of houses and artillery bombarding them from the flank. The wet snow limited their return fire, and cold steel alone wouldn't be enough today. Still, they pressed on toward the enemy. "Nach Vorne!"

The American infantry surpassed the crack Hessian regulars

At that critical moment, a musket ball struck Rall in the side. He jerked but managed to turn his horse around and tried to raise his saber. Then a second shot hit him. Rall fell, mortally wounded. Seeing their commander shot from his horse, the usually steadfast Hessian infantry retreated into an orchard and tried to reform once more. Rall was taken to a nearby church and eventually back to Stacey Potts' house. He died there that night.

Rall was stuck down at the critical moment

Determined, Washington had his men fire into their ranks while Knox’s guns tore through them with round shot. Men were falling. Having just seen their beloved commander carried off, morale quickly began to fade. At first, the Hessians refused calls to surrender. Washington was about to tell Henry Knox to switch to canister – which would have torn through the Hessian ranks like a 12-gauge round through a flock of fat geese. But the grim work was not to be. Always professional, the Hessians realized it was over and began to ground their arms in surrender. Aside from a few hundred who fled across the Assunpink River, the Trenton garrison was captured by the ragged rebel forces led by General George Washington.

After he was struck down,
Rall's men forced to surrender to die Rebellen

What of Rall?

Was Johann Gottlieb Rall an arrogant Teuton and drunk, whose hubris cost him his command, his life, and most importantly, his reputation? As is often the case, the verdict is mixed. Rall was well respected by his men. In an army where blind obedience to officers and NCOs was required, respect was not. And he had their respect. Even more remarkable, Rall was liked by his men.

Rall in better times

A noted war diarist and Rall's adjutant at Trenton, Lieutenant Jakob Piel, writes, “Considered as a private individual, he merited the highest respect. He was generous, magnanimous, hospitable, and polite to everyone; never groveling before his superiors, but indulgent with his subordinates. To his servants, he was more of a friend than a master. He was an exceptional friend of music and a pleasant companion."

Note that Rall was outspoken with his superiors. Few had his combat experience. The brutally frank Rall made sure they knew it. Fellow Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop treated Rall with contempt. However, Captain Johann Ewald of the Jaegers, who later rose to the rank of Lieutenant General, claimed that when it came to fighting, none of the other German officers were fit to carry Rall’s sword. British Colonel William Faucitt considered Rall “... one of the best officers of his rank in the Landgrave’s Army."

Goat? Or Scapegoat?

Friedrich Wilhelm II - not
pleased

Rall’s ruler and commander in chief, Prince Frederick Wilhelm II, convened a court-martial to determine what had happened to his proud army at Trenton. It was bad for business if the Hessians were seen as easy targets for undisciplined troops. Predictably, the court blamed the defeat on Rall and four of his officers. Since they were now dead, there was no real defense made. Colonel Rall was found "guilty" of not fortifying Trenton. 

However, the truth is that fortifications would have been of little help, as most of the men were sheltering from the weather. Additionally, the Americans had superiority in artillery. Not surprisingly, all the surviving Hessian officers were conveniently cleared of wrongdoing. Of course, a Hessian court could not address the larger factors in the defeat: Howe’s dispersal of small garrisons in a hostile region and Grant’s inability to support the forward garrisons, who faced constant rebel militia pressure. Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall was not completely blameless, of course – but he took the blame for the whole thing.

Yankee Doodle Postscript

Actually, a shameless Yankee Doodle Spies plug—my second novel in the popular Revolutionary War espionage series—concludes with all the events surrounding the campaign leading up to and including the Battle of Trenton. I take some liberties with dialogue and certain scenes, but not with the actual historical events. I believe I captured Rall pretty well as part of the story.

The Prediction

The French Connection

Most people know that Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, known in the United States simply as Lafayette, was a 19-year-old French aristocrat and military officer who fought in the American Revolutionary War, leading American troops in several battles, including the Siege of Yorktown.

Lafayette leading troops at Yorktown

 Reform, Revolution & Chaos in France

Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles,
Lafayette's wife

The young general and confidant of General George Washington later returned to France, where he played a crucial and tragic role in his own country's revolution. Lafayette led the original reform movement and remained committed, hoping to act as a moderate influence as the French shifted to the left and violence entered the political scene. He commanded the National Guard and the French Army when his country was invaded. Ultimately, Lafayette and his family became caught up in the Reign of Terror in Paris in 1792. Accused of treason, he fled to the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), where Austrian troops captured him, and he spent over five years in prison.

Meanwhile, his wife, Adrienne, was imprisoned in Paris, held by the revolution's Committee of Public Safety. There, she and her daughter waited in fear as the Reign of Terror sent thousands of her fellow nobles (and others) to the guillotine. In fact, Adrienne’s mother, grandmother, and sister were all executed during the bloodbath in the name of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

The Reign of Terror stained the revolutionary cause
and the streets of Paris

Elizabeth Monroe
future First Lady

In 1794, his former comrade in arms and future American president, James Monroe, became the American Minister to France. Monroe and his wife, Elizabeth, arranged for a carriage so that Elizabeth could ride to the prison, where she managed to meet and embrace Adrienne in front of a crowd of Parisians. The emotional event compelled the Committee of Public Safety to grant Adrienne’s freedom, and she and her daughter traveled to Austria to be with Lafayette. He remained there under dire conditions until Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797. However, upon his return to France, Lafayette refused to support Napoleon's government and lived as a private citizen until the restoration government, during which he served as a member of the Chamber of Deputies. On Christmas Eve in 1807, Adrienne died from illness.

The Return of Lafayette

Samuel Morse
(telegraph inventor)
portrait of Lafayette 

By 1824, Lafayette was the last surviving French general of the American Revolutionary War. As he neared his own "evening parade," he toured the 24 states of the United States from July 1824 to September 1825. This was his first return trip since the American Revolution. The people greeted the former Continental Army general with a hero's welcome at many stops, and numerous honors and monuments were given to commemorate and memorialize this visit. On New Year’s Day in 1825, Congress held a dinner in honor of the hero. At the event, Lafayette responded to the warm words and gestures of his American hosts with a toast that foreshadowed the future: “The perpetual union of the United States: It has always saved us in time of storm; one day it will save the World.” He might have added, "and France twice..."

NYC parade honoring Lafayette was one of many across the new nation

We are Here

Almost a century after the Marquis celebrated the power of the nation he helped establish, Charles E. Stanton, the nephew of Lincoln's Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, took the Marquis's vision seriously. Stanton, a career Army officer, arrived in France as an aide to General John J. Pershing during World War I. They were on a secret mission to start planning for the arrival and training of the American Expeditionary Force. After three years of observing from the sidelines, America declared war on the German Empire and its allies.

President Wilson asked Congress to declare war
on Imperial Germany in April 1917

On July 4, 1917, Stanton, serving on John J. Pershing's staff, visited Lafayettes tomb and said, "Lafayette, we are here!" to honor the nobleman's help during the Revolutionary War and to assure the French people that the United States would support them in World War I. Stanton’s remarks were initially attributed to Pershing because the press was under strict censorship that banned printing the name and location of any U.S. soldier in Europe, with the only exception being General Pershing.

Charles Stanton is third from the left in the photo
Pershing is at the forefront facing

The Prediction

Lafayette's toast predicting his adopted land's role in saving the world is more than just a polite acknowledgment. By the early 19th century, the growth and potential power of the new nation were widely recognized. Lafayette's dedication to the country's fundamental goodness and its possibilities gave him every reason to make such a bold statement. As it turned out, his faith in his adopted country was more than a wise gamble.

Lafayette

Chatterton Hill

A War of Maneuver

The campaign of conquest in New York involved both land and sea maneuvers. In the late summer of 1776, the British landed on Long Island and pushed the Continental Army back to the Island of New York (Manhattan), where they faced a stalemate at Harlem Heights.

After the fighting at Harlem Heights, General George Washington’s Continental Army continued to hold onto upper Manhattan. By mid-October, Washington learned that the British were again on the move, planning to land in what is now Westchester County and surround him. Washington moved most of his forces across King's Bridge, leaving a garrison of about 1,500 men under General Nathanael Greene to hold Fort Washington. 

The British landed at Pell’s Point, and a cat-and-mouse game ensued as their advance was slowed by a series of brave American riflemen's holding actions. Eventually, Washington decided to stand against the British, who were pushing west toward the North (Hudson) River, which would cut Washington off from his supply line. He established a defensive position in the hills of White Plains, where the terrain would favor a defensive stand. The armies were roughly evenly matched, though Washington’s force of 14,500 men was far less trained and equipped than Howe’s force of 13,00 British regulars and Hessian professionals.

Gen George Washington's initial overlook
of Chatterton Hill gave the British an opportunity

A Place of Battle

Present-day White Plains offers few reminders of the American Revolution. In this Westchester County suburb of New York, office buildings and a bustling downtown area are surrounded by residential neighborhoods. It was in White Plains that the youthful version of your author took the road test for his driver’s license. At the time, I, like the thousands who live and work in the city, had no idea that nearby was once a bitterly contested battlefield.

Washington's HQ was at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains

Washington Decides to Stand His Ground

Col Joseph Spencer

By October 28, 1776, Washington’s forces occupied a crescent-shaped three-mile line stretching from the Bronx River to the east to the Croton River to the west. Washington set up his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains and chose a defensive position fortified with two lines of entrenchments. The trenches were dug on elevated terrain, with the right flank protected by swamps near the Bronx River and steep hills further back serving as a retreat. Divisions under Israel Putnam and William Heath were positioned on the right and left flanks. Washington himself held the center. Beyond the right flank of this line was Chatterton Hill, which dominated the ground over which the British would have to advance. Interestingly, Washington initially only posted some militia companies under Connecticut Colonel Joseph Spencer to guard this strategic piece of terrain. He would soon need to send more troops.

White Plains

Sir William Howe

Around mid-morning, news reached Washington that the British were approaching in two columns along the East Chester Road. When they arrived, the British army deployed in an open area about a mile in front of the American line, where their formation was clearly visible to the defenders. Was this an attempt by British commander Sir William Howe to intimidate the Americans and lower their morale? Who knows what the delay cost him in real terms. Could another Bunker Hill be on the horizon? That had always been Howe’s fear since he played a key role in Britain’s costly victory outside Boston. Combined with his hope for reconciliation with the rebels, it seemed to hold him back from launching a massive attack that might have cost both sides greatly.

Seize the Good Ground

This time, Howe made a series of smart decisions. He scanned the American defenses ahead of him and realized he had enough manpower and firepower to launch a frontal assault. However, Howe quickly recognized there was another option - a way to move Washington without causing a bloodbath. The lightly guarded high ground known as Chatterton Hill, just to Washington’s right, is the key to the battlefield. Taking control of that would secure victory over the Americans. Howe discussed with his staff and decided that the main attack would target Chatterton Hill, while the rest of the army would keep the main American line busy. He began preparing to assault the hill, assigning the task to General Alexander Leslie (see the Yankee Doodle Spies blog on Leslie), with two British infantry regiments supported by Hessian troops. Soon, a fierce but inconclusive battle would unfold.

View of White Plains from Chatterton Hill

Finally, Washington recognized the danger he faced if the British seized the key terrain. He hurried to reinforce the heights with another 2,000 men under Colonel Joseph Reed. The critical outpost on Chatterton Hill was eventually held by about 4,000 men under Colonel Alexander McDougall. His force included two New England militia regiments under Colonel Rufus Putnam and Spencer's men. Even as Howe and his staff conferred, his Hessian artillery began firing on the hilltop. A force of 1500 skirmishers under Colonel Joseph Spencer was positioned along the front. The American defenses seemed strong. But when the British finally launched their attack, they quickly pushed aside the skirmishers, who scattered before the advancing troops. However, the arrival of McDougall and his brigade helped rally the defenders, and a defensive line was formed, with the militia on the right and the Continentals along the top of the hill.

Washington rushes reinforcements to the heights

Although he now faced a well-orchestrated onslaught, McDougall made a stubborn defense of it. He managed to hold Leslie’s column at the ford, repelling several attempts to cross the Bronx River. In response, Howe ordered more men, while a force of Hessian infantry under Colonel Johann Rall, supported by British dragoons, moved on the American right flank. The Hessians managed to cross the river and charge up the steep slope, but the determined and well-positioned Americans drove them back. Not to be outdone by the Rebellen, Rall rallied his men and organized a second attack with additional firepower. The artillery fired at the Americans defending the crest of the hill, causing the militia troops to run. However, despite the intense barrage, the Continentals stubbornly held on until the Hessians finally turned their right flank, forcing them back as well.

Hessians advancing under fire

A Timely Retreat, An Untimely Pause

With his flank exposed and crumbling, Washington ordered a retreat, and the Americans withdrew from the hill. Unfortunately for the British, William Howe stays true to form and does not follow up on his success with a vigorous pursuit that might have destroyed the Continental Army and ended the war. Instead, he waits for reinforcements from the rest of his army and simply bivouacs his men on Chatterton Hill. This gives Washington time to move his army to stronger positions at nearby North Castle a few days later. Although the Americans lost the Chatterton Heights along with approximately one hundred thirty killed and wounded, taking the heights cost Howe around two hundred fifty irreplaceable British and Hessian troops killed and wounded. In a sense, Howe came out ahead in that Washington ultimately evacuated New York and abandoned the defenders of Fort Washington to their ultimate demise. But the war of posts would now evolve into a war of maneuver, this time across the Jerseys.

A  Halloween Connection?

Little remembered in history, the action at Chatterton Hill has a link to American folklore and the spooky celebration of Halloween. Washington Irving’s story, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, and the film, Sleepy Hollow, focus on the haunting by a “Headless Hessian Horseman.” According to some accounts, Irving based the story on an incident during the Battle of White Plains when a Hessian soldier, decapitated by a cannon shot on Chatterton Hill, roams the Westchester night seeking vengeance. So, Chatterton Hill leaves a legacy of little military importance but an eerie contribution to American folklore… oh yes, and your humble author passed his road test - first time.

A Hessian's death at Chatterton Hill may have inspired
one of America's earliest legends - Sleepy Hollow

Fort Mifflin

A War of Posts

Over eight years of struggle, the American Revolutionary War shifted from guerrilla warfare to limited battles, and sometimes to maneuver warfare. However, the demands of 18th-century fighting across a vast area filled with rough terrain, dense forests, and uncooperative rivers made it almost always a war of posts. A war of posts is similar to a chess match, with carefully placed defensive positions designed to protect supply lines, stop an enemy advance, and control vital regions. 

Think of the game, Risk, but with real people, sweat, and effort, not small wooden or plastic pieces. The fight for North America included several key battles featuring fixed fortifications. In many ways, these defined the war: West Point and Ticonderoga immediately come to mind. But many battles also involved temporary or hastily constructed forts. These were just as important. Fort Moultrie, Stony Point, and Yorktown serve as notable examples.

Fort Ticonderoga

The Siege

The war featured several key sieges. Most were short-lived, with one side surrendering or the other breaking off the siege due to outside factors like weather, supplies, or reinforcements. Fort Stanwix, Savannah, Charleston, and Newport are examples. Even a brief defense of a position could buy crucial time for a commander to gather forces, regroup, maneuver for advantage, or simply escape. 

That’s why, when a commander faced a long siege or was forced to storm a position, they often treated the defenders and any civilians left behind harshly. Ironically, when the British treated defenders roughly, it fueled rebel propaganda, which played a significant role in the conflict. Not only was the American public watching closely, but the whole world was paying attention. That’s a topic for another post, however.

Fort Stanwix

Fort Mifflin

Arguably, the longest active defense of a post under siege in the war was also one of the least celebrated. We will try to shift the focus toward celebration. Fort Mifflin is located on the Delaware River, in what is now South Philadelphia, at a place called Mud Island. Construction on the fort began in 1772 to block access to the city. 

Ironically, the original construction was overseen by the famous British engineer Captain John Montressor. The fort was completed in 1777 under the leadership of American Major General Thomas Mifflin, for whom it is named. It protected a series of water barriers that stretched across the river to its sister fort, Fort Mercer, in New Jersey.

Maj Gen Thomas Mifflin
finished construction of the fort that bears his name

Most Formidable Defenses

A fort guarding a sea approach needed more than just strong walls and good firing positions. So, Philadelphia built a series of chevaux de frise, placed in "tiers" beneath the waters of the Delaware between Forts Mercer and Mifflin. They were constructed within wooden-framed boxes, 30 feet square, made from massive timbers lined with pine boards. The engineers sunk these frames into the riverbed. 

Each box was filled with 20 to 40 tons of stone to keep it in place. Each frame had two or three large timbers tipped with iron spikes set underwater and angled downstream. These chevaux created a tough obstacle that could trap unwary ships. The chain of chevaux had gaps so friendly shipping could pass through. The locations of these safe passages were tightly kept secret. Any British ship not caught on the spikes or caught in the chain still faced fire from the forts themselves.

Sketch of chevaux crates filled
with stones

A Strategic Position

The British captured Philadelphia in September 1777 through an overland campaign that avoided the fortified Delaware approach. However, the British commander in chief, General William Howe, now faced the urgency of establishing a communication line to the sea. He needed the protection of the Royal Navy and an open supply route, or his position in Philadelphia could become a liability. 

The British commander recognized that their control of the sea was an invaluable advantage over the Americans, which had to be leveraged to the fullest. Howe's brother, Admiral Richard "Black Dick" Howe, commander of the Royal Navy in America, had already started weakening American defenses downriver. But brother Billy couldn't wait for their arrival; he needed to advance overland against Fort Mifflin and hold the navy at Fort Mercer on the Jersey side.

Control of the lower Delaware River and bay
was crucial to British success

Doughty Defenders

Samuel Smith

But the American commander in chief, General George Washington, also recognized the importance of the Delaware. After being driven from near the capital following his defeat at Germantown, Washington prepared for a lengthy series of operations aimed at disrupting British efforts to strengthen their control over Philadelphia. 

On September 23, Washington sent Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Smith of the 4th Maryland Regiment with a detachment of Continentals to the fort on Mud Island in the Delaware River. 

Readers may recall I featured this first patriot in an earlier Yankee Doodle Spies post. Smith's initial force numbered 200 soldiers, along with Major Robert Ballard of Virginia, Major Simeon Thayer of Rhode Island, and Captain Samuel Treat of the Continental Artillery. Determined to hinder British plans at any cost, the Continentals began preparing defenses and calling in more troops. 

Eventually, they would have 400 men, which was far from enough to properly garrison a fort of Mifflin's size. This problem was similar to issues faced by other forces trying to hold forts Ticonderoga and Washington. Still, Smith and his men chose to make the best of the fort.

Fort Mifflin plans

The British Approach

John Montressor

General Howe ordered a move against nearby Providence Island on October 10, 1777. Washington's land forces resisted but were quickly driven off, and soon heavy siege guns were positioned to face the American fort. Despite its strength, Fort Mifflin had not been heavily fortified against a threat from Philadelphia. 

Ironically, Captain John Montresor, who had designed and built Fort Mifflin, planned and constructed the siege works used against his own fort. The situation was certainly against the rebels. Soon, heavy cannonballs started crashing into the American positions. The intense pounding on that side of the fort was horrific, but the Americans fought valiantly, inflicting heavy damage on several British ships attempting to bypass upriver. 

The British mounted guns on floats, creating water batteries that moved closer to the besieged outpost. American casualties increased, and supplies dwindled during the month of relentless bombardment and hardship.

The Royal Navy Engages

"Black Dick" Howe -
so named for a swarthy complexion

But Billie Howe's brother, "Black Dick," would have the final say. He finally managed to unleash the Royal Navy. On November 10, a floating battery with twenty-two heavy 24-pound guns came within 40 yards of the fort. 

At close range, the British gunners could do as much damage as they wanted. This ended up being the heaviest bombardment of the Revolutionary War. Shot and shell shattered walls and buildings. The defenders suffered severe injuries, with limbs torn away or crushed. 

The battle was leaning towards the besiegers, but Smith and the defenders were determined to hold the fort. Cold weather was arriving early, and if they could hold until the Delaware froze, the British supply line might be cut, forcing Howe's army to abandon the recently captured capital. 

On the British side, news of Major General John Burgoyne's army’s disastrous surrender at Saratoga increased pressure on both Howe brothers. A victory over the stubborn defenders could help boost the sagging morale. The stakes were high for both sides!

The Pennsylvania Navy (yes, they had a navy) came to the aid of the forts guarding the Delaware approaches. Commodore John Hazelwood, with a sizable fleet of galleys, sloops, and fire-vessels, launched several raids on British positions onshore and constantly harassed British river operations while patrolling the waters around the fort. But British naval strength eventually prevailed. Rebel resistance persisted. Cold, ill, and starving, the garrison, reduced to much less than 200 of the original 400-450 men, refused to surrender. 

Under the leadership of French Major Francois de Fleury, an engineer of remarkable energy, the Americans worked each night to repair the damage from the day’s combat. Fleury himself was wounded in the battle. A British ship of the line and sloop-of-war both ran aground under heavy fire from Mifflin's defenders. However, British naval superiority virtually guaranteed an unfavorable outcome. Behind the cover of the intense fire from the big guns of the floating battery, the British naval vessels closed in, and soon British marines were sniping at the fort from high in the rigging. With nearly all their guns knocked out, the Americans were running out of options - but not out of spirit.

Fort Mifflin, aka Mudd Island
was the key to the Delaware

The Final British Assault

Clear weather on November 15 gave the British a chance to deliver a final burst of heat. They sent two ships, Vigilant and Fury, armed with nineteen guns, along the backchannel west of Fort Mifflin. At the same time, three large ships with 158 cannons anchored directly off the fort, in the main channel of the Delaware. To the east, three more vessels with about 51 guns guarded Mifflin from all sides. A trap of smoke, fire, and iron.

The Royal Navy had to commit
massive resources to subdue the fort

To oppose this British juggernaut, the defenders of Fort Mifflin had only ten cannons remaining. Soon, hundreds of cannonballs began pummeling what was left of the fort. The large-caliber 18- and 24-pound balls tore through the defenders in another burst of smoke and fire. During the peak of the bombardment, about 1000 shots were fired into the fort. 

To worsen the defenders' plight, British Marines climbed to the crow’s nest of Vigilant and tossed grenades at the fort's defenders. The defenders fought bravely but suffered for it as casualties increased. They returned fire until all their guns were silenced by the heavier British shot. Lieutenant Colonel Smith was seriously wounded and had to be evacuated. The end was near.

The End

Nightfall found the surviving defenders exhausted, cold, and out of ammunition. But not out of options. The new commander of the fort, Major Simeon Thayer, decided to evacuate the now indefensible Mifflin under the cover of darkness. The garrison rowed their way with muffled oars to Fort Mercer. Forty men volunteered to stay behind and set fire to what was left. 

Their work done, around midnight, they also crossed the Delaware to the safety of New Jersey. But Thayer decided on one last act of resistance. So as the last of Mifflin's valiant defenders rowed to safety, they would see it ablaze - but they would see the flag still flying in a final gesture of defiance.

The unusual-looking flag that flew over Fort Mifflin during
the long siege, and in a final act of defiance

The Result

During the siege, about 400 American soldiers held off more than two thousand British troops and 250 ships. The Americans suffered over 250 killed and wounded and lost the fort. However, the time and resources spent by the Howe brothers to capture the fort and control the Delaware allowed Washington to move his army to White Marsh and ultimately reach the safety of winter quarters at Valley Forge, where a new American army was formed.

A new American army would emerge from
the hard winter at Valley Forge

Aftermath

Fort Mifflin was rebuilt after the war and served as a U.S. base for many years, providing one of the strategic harbor defenses for Philadelphia. Later, it became a historic site. Today, only the white stone walls of the original Fort Mifflin remain. The pockmarks in these walls testify to the intensity of the British bombardment in 1777. Local residents refer to this siege and bombardment as the Battle of Mud Island. However, this once-critical fort in the defense of the Delaware and Philadelphia never saw military use again.