Tinkerer, Sailor, Soldier, Surgeon

A Connecticut Yankee

Many of our early patriots were accomplished men of letters—lawyers, judges, planters, and merchants—but relatively few were involved in science and technology. David Bushnell belongs to the latter group. Born in Saybrook, Connecticut, on August 30, 1742, he was the son of a farmer. As the eldest of five children, he grew up working on the family farm near Westbrook. After his father died in 1769, he sold his half interest in the farm to his brother Ezra and entered Yale College in 1771.

David Bushnell

Bombs to Boats

While at Yale, he became intrigued by the idea of underwater explosions. An inventive tinkerer by nature, Bushnell successfully combined a black powder charge with a clockwork timing device, creating the first naval mine. He used this knowledge not only in building the underwater mine but also later in making floating torpedoes that exploded on contact. 

He worked with the wealthy New Haven inventor and manufacturer Isaac Doolittle to develop the first mechanically triggered time bomb as well as the first screw propeller. As he worked on developing a practical delivery system for this unique weapon, the start of the American War for Independence gave a new sense of urgency to his efforts. 

By fall that year, he had designed and built the American Turtle (better known simply as Turtle), a primitive submarine. He named it Turtle because it looked like two turtle shells lashed together. It wasn't pretty, but it worked.

Turtle Design Sketch

Test and Evaluation

Gen Israel Putnam

This primitive submarine was operated by a single operator, who powered it with two hand-cranked screw propellers. A system of water pumps took in and expelled water to control the craft's climb or descent, which could reach a depth of about 15 feet. The pilot had a small conning tower with several windows. The tower contained a depth gauge and a phosphorus-lit compass. 

The Turtle’s punch was Bushnell’s original clock/mine combination connected to a metal drill engineered to bore through the copper sheathing coating the hulls of British warships. Once the mine was attached and released, the timing mechanism engaged, giving the Turtle one hour to escape before a 150-pound charge exploded, detonated by a flintlock trigger device. 

Bushnell arranged a successful demonstration, essentially a “demval” in today’s acquisition parlance. Present for the event on the Thames River was Connecticut General Israel Putnam, who urged the American government to continue funding for its “full operational capability.”

Turtle Replica

Run Silent, Run Deep - Sorta

History was made in the summer of 1776 when the Turtle attacked the British fleet anchored in New York Harbor under the command of Admiral Richard Howe. Unfortunately, Bushnell fell ill, and a sergeant named Ezra Lee volunteered to take his place. On the night of September 6, a pair of whaleboats towed the Turtle offshore, where it began its attack. Pumping feverishly, Lee slowly guided the Turtle toward the British fleet. 

Despite challenging tides, Lee managed to reach the primary target, Lord Howe’s flagship, the 64-gun ship of the line, HMS Eagle. The Turtle’s drill failed to penetrate the hull because it was blocked by an iron bar. With air running low, Lee abandoned the effort and released the mine, which floated free. The mine ultimately exploded in a massive blast that sent a plume of water into the night sky. 

The unexpected iron bar prevented what could have been a disastrous hit to a major target, potentially changing British naval tactics for the rest of the war. See my Yankee Doodle Spies post on "The Boat" for a more detailed discussion of this attack.

Bushnell's Turtle takes on HMS Eagle
and initiates submarine warfare

Torpedoes are Running

Bushnell remained undaunted. Confident in his progress, he kept improving the Turtle. He launched several small attacks on individual British ships, but inexperienced pilots and unfavorable tides prevented each attempt. The Turtle was lost the following October when a transport carrying it was sunk by British cannon fire on the North (Hudson) River. Undeterred by setbacks, Bushnell continued experimenting with naval mines and explosives. On August 13, 1777, he released another mine that floated toward the HMS Cerebus, anchored in Black Point Bay. This time, the tides were favorable, but the device got caught on a small schooner. It exploded, killing three British sailors.

 Turtle needed to be towed  into attack position by rowboats

Battle of the Kegs

A Bushnell mine exploding
unnerved the British

He tried again in January 1778, this time releasing 20 large kegs filled with explosives off Bordentown, New Jersey. The kegs were intended to float down the Delaware River and destroy the British fleet at Philadelphia. One mine exploded near a British rowboat, killing several sailors. 

The attack so rattled the British fleet that it spent the rest of the day shooting at the floating kegs and nearly anything else that floated. This event was satirized in the poem, “Battle of Kegs,” by Francis Hopkinson. Rebel propaganda portrayed this as an embarrassment for the hapless Royal Navy. However, Bushnell's career as an undersea weapons developer was over.

Captain David Bushnell's sappers and miners
fought during the siege at Yorktown

The Sapper

Bushnell returned to Saybrook in the spring of 1778. Local Loyalists had once detained him, but he managed to secure his release. Later that year, Bushnell left the world of maritime warfare and joined the Continental Army after General George Washington appointed him as commander of the first company of sappers and miners at West Point, NY. Captain Bushnell served competently for the rest of the conflict and led the sappers during the siege of Yorktown, the battle that effectively ended the war. After his discharge from the Continental Army, he briefly returned to Connecticut and later spent some time in France before coming back to the United States to settle in Warrenton, Georgia, where he practiced medicine. He died there in 1824.

David Bushnell Memorial in Georgia

Seminal Submariner

In the long run, David Bushnell’s efforts laid the groundwork for the later development of underwater mines, torpedoes, and, of course, the submarine. His fundamental use of water for ballast still applies today, as does the use of the propeller. Although his impact on the course of the American War for Independence was limited, he nonetheless shaped the future direction of naval warfare. No small feat for a Connecticut farm boy.

Today's submarines are descendants of Bushnell's
Turtle and still share its basic design, albeit on steroids

Matriarch of Spies

It's time to revisit two topics I haven't discussed in a while: women in the American War for Independence and espionage. Our subject today addresses both themes and was briefly mentioned in a previous Yankee Doodle Spies post. This female patriot supported George Washington’s efforts in a very unusual way—by letting the British quarter troops in her home. She is also notable because she was a Quaker, even though her actions eventually led to her being expelled from the pacifist Society of Friends.

Immigrant Patriot

Like many of our early patriots, Lydia Barrington was born in Ireland, Ireland, in 1729. At age 24, she met and married William Darragh, the tutor son of a clergyman. Soon after, the couple emigrated and settled in Philadelphia, where they became respected members of the local Quaker community. Although she was somewhat petite and frail, Lydia became a midwife, and like many women of her time, she did sewing on the side. Lydia and her husband enjoyed a prosperous and comfortable life in Philadelphia, as reflected in their large family of nine children (five of whom survived childbirth). The reliable Quaker, Darragh, grew alarmed when one of his sons decided to leave the Friends and join the Continental Army, holding a commission as a lieutenant in the Second Pennsylvania Line. The Society shunned any member who took an active role on either side, especially a military one.

Philadelphia in the 1700s

An Occupied City

Like many Americans, life changed when the war arrived in Philadelphia. In October 1777, the British army under General William Howe took over the former American capital. By chance, Lord Howe set up his headquarters in the home of patriot rebel leader John Cadwalader, just across the street from the Darragh residence at 177 South Second Street. At some point, Howe requested use of the Darragh parlor for staff councils and private meetings. Most war plans during that time were made by “councils of war,” so this was a significant matter. And a great opportunity.

Darragh's House

Making of a Spy

Who recruited Lydia for espionage and why is it uncertain? What motivated her—her son’s military service, concealed patriotism, or anger at the British occupation? Whether she volunteered or was recruited, she clearly became part of an established network. Although lacking formal education, Lydia possessed a brilliant mind, was incisive politically, and perceptive of her surroundings. She also had a remarkable memory. Perhaps her most valuable trait, especially for her role in serving her country, was her unassuming demeanor—the ability to blend in and hide.

Lydia's family operated at the center of
British-occupied Philadelphia

Family of Spies

During the occupation, Lydia’s nursing activities allowed her to move freely through British lines. Soon, her growing family was involved in supporting the cause by gathering intelligence from the heart of the British high command in North America. During the winter of 1777–1778, the occupation of the rebel capital gave the impression of British dominance and the inevitable downfall of the rebellion. After all, Washington’s struggling army was trapped on the frozen plains of Valley Forge. 

While the British enjoyed plenty of resources, the rebel army was deteriorating due to shortages of food, clothing, medicine, and other supplies. The British lowered their guard, holding meetings with the modest nurse in the background. Of course, they knew that the Darraghs, as practicing Quakers, could not support either side in the war or take part in anything related to it. Lydia was able to overhear most of the meetings and conversations in her parlor, then quickly relayed what she heard to her husband William, who carefully recorded the information in special shorthand on small strips of paper. 

Her seamstress skills played a vital role in her espionage efforts. Lydia would sew the thin paper strips into buttons on her 14-year-old son John’s coat. Once done, she sent John as a courier. He would slip through the British lines and meet up with his older brother Charles, who was with Washington’s army. Charles understood the shorthand, transcribed the messages, and transformed them into valuable intelligence.

Lydia Darragh: Nurse, Seamstress, Spy

Secret Mission

But the spy ring’s MO and tradecraft did not play a part in what is considered Lydia Darragh’s boldest achievement. On December 2, Lydia and her family were suddenly ordered to their rooms during an important meeting. An emergency war council took place. This was before the Continental Army had settled in Valley Forge. Washington was still near the capital, hoping to find an opportunity to act before both sides settled into “winter quarters." 

Undeterred, and perhaps spurred by the British’s urgency, Lydia put her ear to a keyhole and listened in as General Howe gave detailed instructions to his commanders. She overheard the British commander-in-chief give orders for a multi-column move against General Washington. The plan was for December 4. The strike was meant to catch the rebels off guard, scatter their army, and maybe even capture Washington in the process.

General Howe's secret plans to surprise and destroy
The Continental Army would spur a bold gambit

She would not leave this critical mission to her young son. Instead, she devised a quick “cover for action” and slipped out of town on December 3rd with sacks, hoping to refill them with flour at a mill near Frankford, located between the opposing army lines. The risk was high, as patrols from both sides roamed the area. It was a 13-mile trek in winter. Undeterred, she went to Pearson’s Mill and left the empty sacks for the owner to fill. She planned to pick them up on her way back. With her cover now in place, Lydia continued her true mission: to deliver the British plans to the American forces.

Clandestine Meeting

There are two versions of what happened next. In one, she encounters a friend, Colonel Thomas Craig, along the road. She tells him what she has learned, and he gallops off to report to Washington. Lydia then secures her flour and makes her way home. In the other version, Lydia heads to a tavern called The Rising Sun. There, she meets with Colonel Elias Boudinot, Commissary-General of Prisoners, who also acts as an intelligence officer. 

Allegedly, Lydia walks into the pub, hands him an old, tattered needlebook, and leaves. When he searches the book, Boudinot finds a roll of paper in one of the pockets. The paper indicates that General Howe will attack Whitemarsh the next morning with 5,000 men, 13 cannons, and 11 boats on wheels. Boudinot mounts his horse and gallops to Washington’s headquarters. He gives her report to Washington but keeps Lydia’s cover safe by naming “captured prisoners” as his source. 

This highlights the crucial role Lydia and the Darragh family played in gathering intelligence from Philadelphia. The fact that Lydia knew Boudinot might be at the tavern shows how sophisticated the spy ring was. I prefer the latter version.

Darragh at The Rising Sun

An Army Saved

Lydia's intelligence, a form of indications and warning (I&W), helped Washington prepare the Continental Army, which repelled General Howe’s “surprise” attack at White Marsh. The multi-day battle saved the army and the cause, allowing it to eventually settle at Valley Forge. The British returned to Philadelphia in disgust.

The series of skirmishes at White Marsh
ended the 1777 campaign with a modest
American victory

A Critical Source

Upon her return, Darragh was questioned by the British, who suspected treachery. She managed to disarm them and convince them she was unaware of their plans. However, Lydia and her family continued to gather information from the heart of the British high command throughout the winter. 

As Washington trained the army at Valley Forge, reports from the capital were critical as he prepared for the spring campaign he knew was coming. So the commander in chief was not caught off guard when Howe was relieved of command in the spring, and the British Army left Philadelphia on June 18, 1778. The departure of the British ended the need for the spy ring, and Lydia and her family’s service faded into the shadows like many effective clandestine operations.

Darragh's espionage continued into 1778

Banned by The Friends

In June 1783, William Darragh died. The Society of Friends was not so welcoming when rumors about the Darragh family’s involvement began to spread. The Friends expelled Lydia later that year. Her oldest son, John, had already been expelled in 1781. 

In 1786, Lydia moved from South Second Street into a new house and, along with her children, operated a store there until her death in 1789. She was buried with other family members in a Quaker cemetery not far from where she spent her post-war years.

Lydia returned to a "normal" life after
the war, but lost her standing with  her "Friends"

Shadow Heroes

Like many espionage and covert actions during the American Revolution, Lydia Darragh's story was scrutinized. Darragh’s daughter, Ann, published her mother’s spy activities in 1827. However, many doubted the story and questioned its truthfulness. 

Suspicion eased in 1909 when Elias Boudinot’s memoirs were released, confirming Darragh’s involvement. He described a woman matching Darragh’s profile, though he, for obvious reasons, did not name her. 

General Washington often expressed frustration over the inability to reveal and properly thank all those early patriots who participated in the shadow war, as they couldn’t receive recognition or rewards for their sacrifices. I, for one, believe Lydia Darragh and her family are among those shadow heroes.

Elias Boudinot's memoirs shed light
on Lydia Darragh's wartime espionage

Right Hand Man

This edition of the Yankee Doodle Spies continues the theme of profiling Revolutionary War figures who appear in my upcoming novel, The Winter Spy. Coincidentally, we will once again profile a native of Ireland, this time a patriot from the South.

School and Service

Edward Hand was born into a prominent Anglo-Irish family in King’s County (now Offaly), Ireland, on December 31, 1744. His family was able to send him to Trinity College in Dublin, where he studied medicine and earned a surgeon’s certificate in 1766.

Trinity College

True to the Irish way, instead of a five-year apprenticeship, young Edward joined the 18th Regiment of Foot (later known as the Royal Irish Regiment) of the British Army as a surgeon’s mate. In 1767, his regiment sailed from Cobh (Cork) to the colony of Pennsylvania. The regiment was quickly marched west to garrison the area around Fort Pitt (today's Pittsburgh). On the way, they passed through Lancaster, in the heart of today’s Amish country. Hand was impressed with the beauty and promise of the region, and it would play a role later in his life.

Private of the 18th Regiment of Foot

Frontier Doctor

Edward Hand, the surgeon’s mate, took an interest in some of the local native tribes, especially their use of plants for medicine. His duties as a surgeon probably weren’t too demanding, as Hand became curious about land speculation. He also befriended a Virginia planter named George Washington, who visited Fort Pitt as colonel of the Virginia militia in 1770. The two got along well and formed a bond, which would positively influence young Hand’s future. As tensions increased between the Americans and the British government, the 18th was called back east to Philadelphia. There, Hand saw the growing resentment and calls for liberty among the people of Philadelphia. Like many British officers, he showed some sympathy for the rising cause.

Ft Pitt was the key British bastion in the west

Domestic Tranquility

Although Hand could afford an ensign’s commission by 1772, he didn’t hold it for long. He sold his commission for around 400 pounds in 1774 and moved to Lancaster, where he established a private practice. He quickly integrated into the local community. His medical practice prospered, and he was financially stable because his land investments on the frontier paid off. He was welcomed into Lancaster society, and through a local judge, he met 23-year-old Katharine (Kitty) Ewing. Kitty’s parents, Captain John Ewing and Sarah Yeates, were among Lancaster’s most prominent families. She and Hand married in March 1775. The events in the following month would soon carry him far from his new bride.

Lancaster

The Surgeon Rebel

Over the past year, Hand had become involved with the local patriot cause. So when the call to arms went out after Lexington and Concord, Doctor Hand was named a lieutenant colonel of the 1st Pennsylvania Rifles. This group of skilled marksmen gathered with other regiments from across the colonies to face the British, who were entrenched in Boston. Hand quickly earned a reputation for working closely with his men, making him well-liked by the soldiers he commanded. Colonel Hand’s riflemen soon became known as expert marksmen but were also somewhat unruly. Despite this, Hand performed capably and eventually helped smooth out the rough edges of his troops. Ironically, Hand's old regiment, the 18th, was part of the British garrison that left Boston to the rebel besiegers. In March 1776, he was appointed colonel in charge of the regiment when it was renamed the 1st Continental Line.

Colonel Hand's Pennsylvania Rifles' sniping skills were put to
good use during the siege of Boston

Stopping Cornwallis 

Hand and his men performed admirably during the New York campaign of 1776. But his most notable achievement was his skillful command of his troops and clever use of the terrain near Pell's Point at Throg’s Neck on October 12, which helped avert disaster. Under his steady leadership, his riflemen calmly fired on the advancing British forces, effectively preventing a landing by General Charles Cornwallis. Hand’s men quickly moved, torching the bridge over a small creek and positioning themselves behind a stack of wood. From this vantage point, Hand’s riflemen sniped at the approaching regulars, who marched steadily into their line of fire, and successfully held off a large force until additional American troops arrived. Hand’s careful use of firepower allowed Washington’s main army to escape. After similar effective service at White Plains, Hand’s regiment retreated with the diminishing Continental Army across New Jersey that winter. 

Hand's Pennsylvanians stymied Lord Cornwallis's
British regulars and Hessians at Pell's Point

His next battlefield masterpiece would soon unfold, again at the expense of Lord Cornwallis. On the cold day of January 2, 1777, Hand once more thwarted Cornwallis’s advance, this time at Assunpink Creek near Trenton. This is where Edward Hand appears in The Winter Spy. His skillful maneuvering of several hastily assembled regiments to delay the British column helped his friend, General George Washington, escape a British trap and secure victory at Princeton. Hand’s performance was recognized, and Washington soon recommended him for promotion to brigadier general, which was approved on April 1, 1777. At that time, Edward Hand became the youngest general in the Continental Army.

Hand's delaying action helped Washington's army
defend Assunpink Creek from another onslaught
by Lord Cornwallis

A New General, an Old Doctor

What to do with a new general? Well, since he knew about the West, Washington quickly sent Hand to the place they first met. Brigadier General Hand reported for duty at his old post, Fort Pitt, where he faced the tough task of defending western Pennsylvania from pro-British Indians and Loyalists. But Hand was soon confronted with something even more dangerous than the tribes and Loyalists—an outbreak of smallpox. Switching from General Hand to Doctor Hand, he had a hospital built to quarantine and treat those infected. Hand even donated six acres of his own land—part of a 331-acre plot in Westmoreland County—for the facility. The “smallpox hospital” was a log building, two stories tall, with three rooms on each level, protected by ten surrounding blockhouses for defense.

Hand's organizational skills garnered support
for Colonel George Rogers Clark's campaign

Hoping to launch an offensive against the hostile British allies, he tried to send expeditions against the tribes along the Ohio River. However, he could not gather enough men and supplies until February 1778. In the dead of winter, Hand assembled 500 men, but the column was likely to fail. Still, Hand managed to provide crucial assistance to Colonel George Rogers Clark, whose campaign in the Illinois territory played a key role in weakening British control in the West.

Returning East

Frustrated by the western backwater, Hand requested and was granted a reassignment back east. Along the way, he took time to visit Kitty in Lancaster. From there, Hand traveled to Albany, New York, where he took command of the Northern Department. In this role, he supported General John Sullivan’s punitive expedition and conquest of the Iroquois heartland in 1779, marking a more successful yet equally tragic campaign against the native peoples of New York.

Sullivan's campaign against the Iroquois was as tragic
as it was successful

Spy Catcher

No, he was not exactly a spy-catcher. However, Hand was chosen by General Washington to be part of the esteemed 'blue ribbon” group of officers assigned to serve on the court-martial of British Major John Andre, the officer who recruited American traitor Benedict Arnold. Hand was in the company of notable figures such as Nathanael Greene, Arthur St. Clair, Steuben, Lafayette, Henry Knox, John Glover, and others. On September 29, 1780, they found André guilty of being behind American lines "under a feigned name and in a disguised habit" and ordered that "Major André, Adjutant-General to the British Army, ought to be considered as a Spy from the enemy, and that agreeable to the law and usage of nations, it is their opinion, he ought to suffer death."

Major John Andre's court-martial had an all-star
cast of jurors, including Edward Hand

The Right Hand

A month later, Brigadier General Hand took command of a special light infantry brigade under Marquis de Lafayette. However, Hand was soon summoned to Washington’s side, replacing Colonel Alexander Scammel as the adjutant general on the Continental Army staff. The adjutant general was a crucial figure on 18th-century military staffs, responsible for issuing orders to the army, collecting monthly reports from the regiments, managing officers' appointments and leaves of absence, and overseeing military reviews, exercises, maneuvers, and discipline. Essentially, they managed the army for the commander. In this role, Edward Hand became General Washington's "right-hand man."

Brigadier General Hand
was indispensable
to General Washington as Adjutant General

He remained in this key position at Washington’s request, playing a vital role in the complex campaign that led to the dramatic victory at Yorktown in October 1781. The war continued for more than two years after Cornwallis’s surrender – did I mention he had a knack for confounding Cornwallis? Hand’s role was crucial in keeping the Continental Army united as the peace negotiations dragged on. He had to draw from his leadership toolbox once again in 1782. Just as Colonel Hand worked well with his soldiers outside Boston, Brigadier General Hand was essential in suppressing the army’s unrest and the infamous “conspiracy” at Newburgh, New York. Largely as an honor for outstanding service, Hand was promoted to brevet Major General before mustering out in late 1782.

Soldier to Surgeon to Politico to Soldier

With his eight-year struggle for independence concluded, Hand returned to the comforts of his wife and children. In addition to his medical practice, he involved himself in civics, serving in the Continental Congress from 1784 to 85, and in the Pennsylvania assembly from 1785 to 86. As political factions formed into parties, Doctor Hand aligned with his friend and mentor Washington. He became a firm Federalist and was appointed Customs Collector of Pennsylvania’s Third District by President Washington in 1791.

Hand served as Adjutant General in the Provisional Army
raised by President John Adams to fight the French

Hand managed to find time in 1794 to serve a short stint with the army, once more as adjutant general, during the Whiskey rebellion. When war with France threatened four years later, Hand was commissioned as a major general and appointed adjutant general of the Provisional Army by President John Adams. But with Thomas Jefferson's election in 1800, our surgeon lost his position as a customs collector and returned to beloved Lancaster.

Family Man

Hand and his wife Kitty had four daughters and two sons, some born during the war, some afterward. Another daughter died in infancy. So, when he left his customs job, Hand had a lot to return home to. Unfortunately, he only had two more years of peace at home. Stricken with a sudden illness, he died at his house in Rock Ford, Pennsylvania, on September 3, 1802.

Hand's home at Rock Ford

As both a doctor and a general, Edward Hand was certainly one of Pennsylvania’s most illustrious citizens and political leaders, having served as a surgeon, businessman, and a military and political leader at both ends of the state. He is also one of the important but little-known leaders I call first-patriots, whose dedicated efforts, patriotism, and talents helped win a nation.

Scotch Willie

The Winter Spy, the next book in the "Yankee Doodle Spies series," introduces some new characters, both real and fictional. This post highlights one of those historical figures, an acerbic, two-fisted Scots-Irishman who seemed to tick off everyone but was often called upon when there was fighting to be done and battles to win.

Our subject is William Maxwell, who hailed from County Tyrone, Ireland. Born in 1733, young Maxwell emigrated to the colonies with his parents in 1747, settling in what was then Sussex County, New Jersey. Little is known of his early life until he followed the drum and enlisted in the provincial forces when the French and Indian War erupted in 1754. 

Maxwell played a key role in the 

 Winter Spy

The 21-year-old Maxwell was with Braddock's forces during the disastrous defeat at the Monongahela River in western Pennsylvania. But the brave Maxwell survived the massacre and continued service to King and Country, first as an ensign in Col. John Johnson's New Jersey Regiment and later as a lieutenant in the Jersey Blues.  

Maxwell was under arms during the 1758 campaign and the British defeat by General Montcalm at the Battle of Carillon (Fort Ticonderoga). But two disasters did not lead to three. Third time's a charm - he participated in the decisive British victory on the Plains of Abraham and the fall of Quebec in 1759. 

French Victory at Fort Carillon

The drum and musket seemed to become our fiery Irishman. The end of the war saw him remain in the service of the crown. He was posted to the western frontier (Britain now had a larger empire to guard). Over time, he rose to the position of commissary officer at Fort Michilimackinac. This highlights Maxwell's administrative talent, as he was responsible for purchasing and delivering the army's supplies.

When tensions between the colonies and the crown increased, Maxwell firmly supported the rebellion. He resigned his commission and moved east. Wanting to join the cause, he returned to his now adopted colony of New Jersey and actively participated in its political scene. Maxwell was appointed to the provincial Congress and eventually became Chairman of the Committee of Safety. This position utilized his military experience, as Committees of Safety were responsible for arming and preparing the colonies for potential war.

Shot Heard 'round the World:
Lexington turned insurgency into rebellion

 The shot heard 'round the world in April 1775 resonated loudly in the Jerseys, and the call to arms was answered. Maxwell abandoned his political role for a military one, this time to defend his adopted country. In November of that year, he was appointed colonel of the 2nd New Jersey Continental Line infantry. His field service would come quickly and intensely.  

Continental Line Infantry

A late 1775 campaign to win Canada for the American cause was faltering. So, in the spring of 1776, he joined General John Sullivan’s expedition to bolster American forces in Canada. He fought under General William Thompson in the battle at Trois Rivieres on June 6, 1776. Although he endured another defeat, he was now a highly experienced field commander, and there was more fighting to prevent the shattered army from falling apart during its retreat back to New York. 

General John Sullivan

Like many military men of the war, Maxwell was quick to feel slighted, especially regarding his achievements. When Colonel Arthur St. Clair was promoted to brigadier general ahead of him, he bitterly wrote to Congress. He was also outspoken against the commander of the Northern Department, General Philip Schuyler, and his plan to abandon the French fort at Crown Point, New York, to the advancing forces of General Guy Carleton. Crown Point is just north of Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain. Perhaps he felt some resentment at witnessing another defeat on the lake.

Fort Ticonderoga

But Maxwell received good news when, on 23 October 1776, he was also appointed brigadier general. The promotion brought him back to the Jerseys, this time serving under General George Washington at the very end of the New Jersey campaign. His knowledge of the Jerseys kept him in active service, screening against British inroads after the successful one-two punch Washington dealt at Trenton and Princeton. 

The American attack on Trenton

The Continental Army settled into winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey. During the winter of 1777, he led a mix of continental and militia units in a series of forage fights. He demonstrated the ability to orchestrate quick strikes, utilize intelligence and terrain, and secure victories. The British suffered heavy casualties during a period when they were supposed to rest and recover. 

Maxwell struck at British forays for food throughout the Winter

Maxwell was proving to be a brave combat officer, but there were some murmurs about his personality and habits. His taciturn demeanor and thick Ulster accent earned him the nickname, “ScotchWillie.” 

Brigadier General William Maxwell

In the spring, Maxwell received a high command and took control of the Light Infantry Brigade. This elite unit included carefully selected men from every regiment in the army. The brigade was intended to fill the gap created when Colonel Daniel Morgan's riflemen were sent to northern New York.

Maxwell's Light Infantry Brigade was an elite corps

Not for the last time, Maxwell was thrust into the spotlight. Charged with guarding the British advance, he skillfully led his men at Cooch's Bridge, Delaware, on September 3, 1777. This was the first skirmish in General William Howe's crucial campaign to capture the rebel capital, Philadelphia. Maxwell's troops fought bravely until outflanked by Hessian enemies and forced to retreat by stronger forces. This battle was reportedly fought under the new “Stars and Stripes” flag recently adopted by Congress. 

 Cooch's Bridge

Maxwell performed well at Brandywine and Germantown that fall, although he was accused of excessive drinking. A court of inquiry proved inconclusive, so he returned to Valley Forge that winter, leading a newly recruited New Jersey brigade. The following summer, Maxwell’s troops were heavily engaged at Monmouth in August 1778, and he later testified against General Charles Lee at his court-martial for abandoning his post.

At Monmouth, Washington rallied the Army when
General Charles Lee mishandled the advance guard

In the summer of 1779, Maxwell again joined General Sullivan, this time for his controversial punitive expedition into the heart of Iroquois territory in central New York. Sullivan specifically requested his services. His brigade played a key role at the Battle of Newtown. Maxwell did not disappoint, and in August, when Sullivan fell ill, he temporarily took command of the entire army. 

Battle of Newtown, Sullivan's Iriquois Campaign

That fall, Maxwell returned to the Jerseys with his brigade. In June 1780, he proved crucial in organizing troops and militia. With his forces now deployed to defend the Continental Army base at Morristown, they played a key role in resisting the advance of British and Hessian units at Connecticut Farms and later Springfield. 

At Connecticut Farms, on June 7, his men successfully delayed the advance of General von Knyphausen's six thousand British and Hessian troops. Maxwell was able to harass and slow the enemy's advance while inflicting roughly an equal number of casualties. Frustrated, von Knyphausen ultimately withdrew. 

Maxwell delayed the British-Hessian
forces at Connecticut Farms

A few weeks later, von Knyphausen launched another attack, his column clashing with Maxwell’s brigade and once again covering the army’s advance. Maxwell continued to fight a delaying action, giving the American commander, General Nathanael Greene, time to set up his defenses around Springfield. When Maxwell took command of one of the reserve wings, Greene managed to repel von Knyphausen, who then retreated back to Staten Island. These were among the last actions in the north, as the British shifted their focus to a southern strategy.

Around this time, Maxwell was troubled by various issues. He was worried about the shrinking size of his brigade due to failed enlistments and a wave of mutinies in the Army. Tensions with subordinate officers also weighed heavily on him. Additionally, he had become dissatisfied with the lack of recognition. He urged General Washington to send his resignation to Congress, possibly incorrectly believing he could secure a promotion. However, the plan backfired when it was accepted, and command of the New Jersey troops passed to Colonel Elias Dayton, who had supporters both in and out of the army.

Elias Dayton succeeded Maxwell
as Brigadier General

In a petition to Washington, Maxwell tried but failed to secure reinstatement. Politics had caught up with Scotch Willie. Dayton now held his former general officer position, and Congress was not willing to demote him. With his military career over, Maxwell turned back to politics. In 1783, he served a term in the New Jersey state legislature but otherwise failed to make a mark and returned to his farm at the end of the term. The hard-drinking Maxwell died at Lansdowne, New Jersey, on November 4, 1796.

ScotchWillie's Grave

  

Scotch Willie falls into an interesting group of Revolutionary War commanders: not brilliant, flawed, but competent, brave, and resolute. Sullivan himself and Lord Stirling fall into the same category. Yes, they are overshadowed by the likes of Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox, Anthony Wayne, and the Marquis de Lafayette. But they served in key posts, in key campaigns, and brought enough leadership and success to keep the cause alive during some of its toughest moments.