Ramsour's Mill

Background

One of the least known but still crucial sites of the American Revolution was a small mill in North Carolina's Piedmont region. A modest backcountry mill, Ramsour's Mill, first played its part in the fight for independence during the summer of 1780. After Charleston, South Carolina fell in May 1780, General Charles Cornwallis was well on his way to dominating the South. Georgia and South Carolina were under British control, allowing the ambitious British general to turn his attention to North Carolina with an army of over 8,000. The southern strategy appeared to be working.

Lord Charles Cornwallis

Loyalists Gather

While Cornwallis rested his army in Charleston to prepare for his next move, two Loyalist leaders chose to act independently. The war for independence was, after all, a civil war, and these are often fought locally by the people who live there. So, Loyalists Lt. Colonel John Moore and Major Nicholas Welch decided to pursue their own goals by launching the first British attack on the North Carolina colony—their home turf. By June 13, 1780, they had successfully assembled a group of Loyal recruits at Jacob Ramsour’s Mill, near Clark’s Creek in Lincoln County, NC.

Patriot Response

However, General Griffith Rutherford, the shrewd and determined leader of the patriot forces in western North Carolina, had learned of the Loyalists gathering in Lincoln County. He immediately contacted patriot leaders, Colonel Francis Locke and Major Robert Wilson, and ordered them to assemble the militia to stop the Loyalists' assembly. To that end, 400 militia from Burke, Iredell, Mecklenburg, and Rowan Counties gathered at Mountain Creek on June 19. 

The recent British victory at Waxhaws boosted Tory morale, enabling Moore and Welch to collect around 1300 Loyalists - more than three times the number of local patriots. Recognizing that the Loyalists' numbers would only increase, Rutherford decided on a surprise attack against the Loyalist camp. A battle was about to unfold, pitting neighbor against neighbor.

Patriot mounted militia led the attack

Battle or Fratricide?

In the early hours of June 20, Locke led a militia band to Ramsour’s Mill to meet Adam Reep, a local patriot spy with intelligence on Loyalist troop location and strength. As the sun rose over Ramsour’s Mill, the rebel militia quietly moved through the early morning fog. The patriot cavalry launched a swift attack, aiming to surprise the Loyalists. Though initially repelled by the Loyalists' defenses, the rebel infantry advanced. The Tories were initially confused but were rallied by Moore and Welch to push back the patriot assault. 

The defenders held off the attackers at first, but soon rebel marksmen closed in, leading to close combat. Many on both sides were poorly armed. The chaos was intense, as this was a battle without uniforms. The Loyalists wore green pine twigs in their hats, while the patriots had white paper on theirs. The fighting was fierce—neighbor against neighbor, even brother against brother. It was as much personal as political, with each side viewing the other as a traitor. The battle lasted nearly two hours—a lengthy engagement for such a fight. Eventually, the Loyalists became disorganized, and many fled. When Colonel Rutherford arrived, the Loyalists requested a truce but demanded an immediate surrender. While negotiations took place, the remaining Loyalists fled, and about 50 were captured as prisoners.

The fighting was intense - and personal for many

The Result

The action at Ramsour's Mill cost seventy lives and left two hundred wounded. Most of the fallen, both patriots and Loyalists, were buried in a mass grave. The defeat so severely demoralized the Loyalists in that part of North Carolina that they never reorganized in that area again. As for the headstrong Colonel Moore, he and about 30 of his men were able to reach General Cornwallis, who was then at Camden. But Cornwallis, angered by Moore's rash actions and the defeat, threatened him with charges for disobeying orders.

Aftermath

Ramsour’s Mill deprived Cornwallis of Loyalist recruits when he finally invaded western North Carolina. More importantly, patriot morale received a significant boost from the unlikely victory. Additionally, the Loyalists' morale was so low that they never managed to properly recruit from that area again. This indirectly led to the chain of events that culminated in the patriot victory at King’s Mountain later that year. 

In a curious and ironic postscript, Ramsour's Mill played another role in the struggle for the South and Lord Cornwallis's ambitions. It was at Ramsour's Mill in January 1781 that Cornwallis paused his advance north to burn his wagons and excess baggage before resuming his futile pursuit of American General Nathanael Greene to the Dan River. 

This campaign exhausted Cornwallis's forces, and he eventually fell back under heavy pressure from ambushes and skirmishes initiated by the rebels who now sensed blood. Cornwallis finally faced Greene's resurgent army at Guilford Courthouse—a "victory" that proved costly and marked the beginning of the end for the Southern strategy.

Ramsour's Mill played a role in the fateful
race to the Dan of 1781

The First President

Who was John Hanson?

 The "Major Deegan Expressway" is a busy and famous road in the Bronx, named after someone nobody ever heard of. William Francis Deegan was a major in the Army  Engineers in WWI, a renowned civil engineer, and NY Democratic politico.  Deegan also helped found The American Legion.

Suburban Washington, DC, has its own version of the "Major Deegan." In Maryland, there is a road called the "John Hanson Highway." The John Hanson Highway is actually US Route 50 heading east from the District towards Annapolis. Just as in the Bronx, I am sure the thousands of drivers who transit that road each day have no idea who John Hanson was. They would be amazed to learn it was named after the nation's first president!

John Hanson Highway

Early Life

John Hanson was born in Mulberry Grove, Charles County, Maryland on 2 April 1721. He was the son of a  planter of English ancestry. His grandfather, also named John, came to Charles County, Maryland as an indentured servant around 1661. In 1744 Hanson married a wealthy landowner (Martha Washington was no the only wealthy colonial woman to marry a future president). Within the decade Hanson had expanded the holding to over 1,300 acres. Also like Washington, Hanson entered public life. In 1750 he was elected sheriff and seven years later was elected to a seat in the Maryland Assembly. By all accounts, he was a solid and efficient bureaucrat with a knack for finance.

Maryland Plantation

Political Strife

As friction between England and her colonies grew during the 1760s, Hanson identified with those who supported American grievances. Hanson publicly denounced the Stamp Act of 1765 and drew instructions for the first Maryland delegates attending the Stamp Act Congress in New York. In 1769, Hanson signed the Non-Importation Resolution adopted by Maryland to protest the Townshend Acts - a series of measures introduced into the English Parliament by Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend. The Townshend Acts of 1767 imposed duties on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea imported into the colonies.


Move West

Hanson moved to Frederick County in the western part of Maryland in that same year. He took up life as a merchant. But he did not forgo politics. Instead, he became involved in the "extra-legal" political activities protesting British policy. In a word, he became a rebel. In 1774 Hanson chaired a town meeting to protest the Coercive Acts, the series of laws passed by the British Parliament to punish the colonies. Four of the acts were issued in direct response to the Boston Tea Party of December 1773. The following year, Hanson went on record declaring that armed force might be necessary to resist British tyranny. Those were serious words that clearly placed him at the center of the rebellion.

Coercive Acts were enacted in response to Boston's Tea Party

War Supplier

When armed conflict erupted in April 1775, Hanson used his fiscal expertise and organizational skills to help arm and equip soldiers of the Continental Army. As a result, soldiers from Frederick County were among the first soldiers to join General George Washington's army gathering at New York City. These were part of the famed First Maryland Regiment of the "Continental Line." Readers of the Yankee Doodle Spies series know that the main protagonist, Lieutenant Jeremiah Creed, was an officer leading a company from Frederick County as part of this esteemed outfit. The Marylanders, who made a gallant charge at the Battle of Long Island, were among the best equipped of Washington's soldiers - now we know it was thanks to one John Hanson.

Mark Maritato's  painting of the Maryland Line's gallantry on Long Island
(hangs in my office)

War Politician


Beginning in 1777, the people of Frederick sent Hanson back to the Maryland Assembly for five consecutive terms. In 1779 he was appointed a delegate to the Continental Congress. In Philadelphia, Hanson was appalled by the sloppy administration of the war and their wasteful spending. He was an early supporter of a stronger government in the form of the Articles of Confederation. Now known as a weak central form of government, the Articles had many advantages and were in fact more authoritative than the unstructured Congresses that preceded it.  Hanson delayed formal support until Virginia and other states gave up their claims to western lands. Once he accomplished that, Hanson became an ardent advocate and was elected as the first "President of the United States in Congress assembled" on 5 November 1781.

America's First President - John Hanson

Hanson's role was mostly ceremonial as under the Articles there was no executive. But he did oversee the day to day proceedings of the Congress. He corresponded with state governors, sent resolutions off to the various state assemblies, and helped orchestrate legislative functions.  Peace talks were initiated with Britain under Hanson. And he developed the structure of managing government through departments. Arguably, Hanson's most memorable war act was to accept the sword of General Charles Cornwallis from the victorious General Washington in November 1781.

Washington would present the sword Cornwallis surrendered
at Yorktown to President John Hanson

An Early Demise


Hanson was plagued by ill health and left his position after only one year as president when he resigned from office. John Hanson died on 15 November 1783, in Oxon County, Maryland, just ten days before the last British troops left New York City. Although not listed among the pantheon of "Founding Fathers," John Hanson can best be remembered as a highly trustworthy and efficient public servant and, technically, the nation's first president.

Statue of Hanson in Capitol's
 National Statuary Hall Collection

Rodrigue Hortalez & Cie.

As I began my research into the American War for Independence to gain background and context for the Yankee Doodle Spies novels, I uncovered many things I had not known or even imagined existed. The struggle for independence was long and complex, featuring, in addition to traditional aspects of warfare, civil war, insurgency, guerrilla warfare, diplomacy, piracy, espionage, counterespionage, code-breaking, propaganda, spying, and covert operations.

A Secret War

Not widely known, the French began a covert operation to bolster the American rebels against the British crown. But some French secret activities began much earlier. The King of France, Louis XVI, and his ministers were smarting from the considerable losses of land suffered in the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in America. France lost all of her North American colonial possessions (except a few small islands off the maritime provinces) and had been militarily humiliated by the British. Shortly after the Treaty of Paris in 1763 was signed, French agents went to the American colonies to sow discord between the colonists and their masters. As the actual conflict drew closer, both the Americans and the British expected some sort of French intervention. The question was where, what, and how?

The French & Indian War cost France her
New World power and global prestige

The Minister

Any intervention would be directed by Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, appointed foreign minister of France by Louis XVI in 1774. Vergennes hated the British, whom he considered France's natural enemy. With Vergennes at the helm of foreign policy, many believed France would be quick to provide aid following the actions at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. But Vergennes and the King moved deliberately. They anticipated another war (of revenge) against the British. They knew France was not yet ready, and they did not think the colonies could succeed. How to proceed?

Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes

The Playwright Spy

On the scene comes an unlikely figure: Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a watchmaker, playwright (Marriage of Figaro, Barber of Seville, etc.), inventor, musician, politician, fugitive, spy, publisher, arms-dealer, and... revolutionary.  Something akin to the "world's most interesting man", Beaumarchais was well known at the highest circles of French society. Louis XVI was an amateur watchmaker and one-time student of Beaumarchais. 

John Wilkes

As America boiled with patriotic fervor and rebellion, Beaumarchais developed a passion for liberty and the colonists' cause. It is no small irony that many in the highly stratified, autocratic French society were also bedazzled by the ideals of the American cause. This included the king and Vergennes - although their bedazzlement was as much an opportunity for revenge as a love of liberty. Beaumarchais approached Vergennes with a proposal to support the Americans. 

At first, Vergennes demurred. He knew the king was not ready to commit to action that might be exposed prematurely. During the run-up to and early months of the American Revolution, Beaumarchais was a French agent in London. He had made numerous secret connections with Americans and British, particularly Arthur Lee and British radical politician John Wilkes. Beaumarchais penned a letter (via Vergennes) to the king in late 1775, proposing a scheme to deliver covert arms to the Americans via the West Indies in exchange for tobacco and other American produce. Louis XVI demurred again at first but soon agreed.

Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais- the 
world's most interesting man in an age of
interesting men?

The Company

Arthur Lee

With the king's quiet approval, Vergennes instructed Caron de Beaumarchais to execute his scheme and set up a "proprietary" called Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie. This was a front company whose primary purpose was to protect France's role in aiding the American rebels. Beaumarchais, a master of intrigue, registered the company in Spain and ensured no paper trail could be traced to the French government or any other French public entity. Beaumarchais had "backers" for the company whose identities were kept secret. Beaumarchais engaged the sole American representative in Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut. Secret correspondence across the Atlantic and into London and Spain set things in motion. Deane would eventually be joined by Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin, which would take things into intrigues best left for another time.

Silas Deane played a pivotal role that ended
in controversy and ignominy

The "Business"

When the king approved the operation, Vergennes granted Beaumarchais an initial one million livres (several million dollars) to purchase and ship weapons and other war materiel to the Continental Army. At the same time, Vergennes pressured Spain, which contributed the same amount. Spain chafed at British ascendancy but, suspicious of Americans' intentions in Louisiana, dragged its feet. The crafty and persistent Vergennes soon succeeded in pushing them along. The front company prospered. In its first year of "business," Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie shipped over 30,000 muskets, 100,000 rounds of shot, hundreds of cannons, tents, ordnance, and clothing through New England merchants with shipping connections to the Indies. These items were critical to continuing the war effort, as America, by design, had little industrial capacity. 

The neutral Dutch islands in the Caribbean, such as Sint Eustatius, became a hotbed of clandestine shipping. Experienced American smugglers would navigate around British naval pickets to make secret transactions: typically, tobacco for arms and equipment. France shipped surplus and old (if not obsolete) weapons from its fortresses and armories. The tobacco and goods received were to be sold for cash, which was used to finance the French armaments industry, procuring new weapons for the French armies and navies that would eventually fight Britain. Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie continued in business for two years.

Sint Eustatius was a major transit point for
the secret weapons-for-goods trade

The Covert War goes Overt

Franklin and Lee's arrival heated up the diplomatic situation as Franklin, surrounded by British agents, employed a masterful stratagem to woo the French public and ruling class. Yet the covert war had long been established by Deane and Beaumarchais. Now, however, Beaumarchais faded into the shadows, and Deane was soon recalled to America on corruption charges that were never proven. 

After the Continental Army soundly defeated the British at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, things changed dramatically. France entered into an alliance with the infant United States in early 1778, while a reluctant Spain finally declared war on Britain in 1779. Still suspicious of the Americans, Spain allied itself only with France. Regardless, much more aid was now shipped to the colonies, this time openly, in the bellies of warships and transports, rather than under cover of the covert and private enterprise that was Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie.

Benjamin Franklin waged a masterful subterfuge and
charm offensive as commissioner in Paris

The Legacy of Untidy Business

As the war's progress made Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie unnecessary, some "unfinished business" fell to the American Commission in Paris, which now included John Adams in place of Deane. The correspondence below offers a glimpse into the untidiness of wrapping up covert affairs... even in the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies...

Passi Septemr. 10. 1778

From the American Commissioners

To Comte de Vergennes

Sir

By some of the last Ships from America, we received from Congress certain Powers and Instructions, which we think it necessary to lay before your Excellency, and which we have the Honor to do in this Letter.

We have the Honor to enclose to your Excellency a Copy of the Contract made between the Committee and Mr. Francy, a Copy of Mr. Francy's Powers, and a Copy of the list of Articles to be furnished, according to that Contract, that your Excellency, may have before you all the Papers relative to this Subject.

We are under a Necessity of applying to your Excellency upon this Occasion, and of requesting your Advice.

With Regard to what is passed, we know not who the Persons are, who constitute the House of Roderigue Hortalez & Company, but we have ever understood, and Congress has ever understood, and so have the People in America in general, that they were under Obligation to his Majestys good will, for the greatest part of the Merchandizes, and Warlike Stores heretofore furnished, under the Firm of Roderigue Hortalez & Company. We cannot discover that any written Contract was ever made between Congress or any Agent of theirs, and the House of Roderigue Hortalez & Co., nor do we know of any living Witness, or any other Evidence, whose Testimony can ascertain to us, who the Persons are that constitute the House of Roderigue Hortalez & Company, or what were the Terms upon which the Merchandises and Munitions of War were supplied, neither as to the Price, nor the Time or Conditions of Payment.

As we said before, we apprehend that the United States hold themselves under Obligation to his Majesty, for all these Supplies, and we are sure it is their Wish and their Determination to discharge the Obligation to his Majesty, as soon as providence shall put it in their Power. In the mean time, we are ready to settle and liquidate the Accounts according to our Instructions, at any time and in any Manner, which his Majesty, or your Excellency shall set out to us.

As the Contract for future Supplies is to be ratified, or not ratified by us, as we shall judge expeditious we must request your Excellencys Advice as a favor upon this Head, and whether it would be safe or prudent in us to ratify it, and in Congress to depend upon Supplies from this Quarter, because if we should depend upon their Resource for Supplies, and be disappointed, the Consequences would be fatal to our Country. 

We have the Honor to be

 with all Respect Your Excellencys

 most Obedient and very humble Servants

B Franklin
Arthur Lee
 John Adams

The Surgeon General

Tomorrow marks the anniversary of the Battle of Princeton, the culmination of a week of daring action that literally saved the American Revolution—at least until its next crisis. The battle featured a daring night march by Washington's army—pinned and shivering between the Assunpink Creek and the frozen Delaware River, awaiting possible annihilation by General Cornwallis and 5,000 British and Hessians hell-bent on revenge for the first battle of Trenton. 

Washington's men abandoned camp in the dark winter night. Tramping through frozen marshlands, they circled around the British, arriving several miles behind them and preparing to seize the British base at Princeton. Washington succeeded in one of the rare open-field engagements of the campaign, demonstrating decisiveness and personal bravery by leading his men across the snow-covered fields in a gallant charge. But the victory came at a great cost: two of his top generals fell that day. One of them was Hugh Mercer, the Scottish-born surgeon turned soldier.

Young Hugh Mercer

Early Life: Scalpel, Claymore, and Tomahawk

Mercer fought with the clans at Culloden

Mercer was born in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1725, and earned a medical degree from the university of that name in 1744. Apparently a lover of hopeless (not lost) causes, the young Mercer joined the Jacobite army under Prince Charles Edward, known as the Pretender, until that struggle for freedom was crushed by the Duke of Cumberland's redcoats at Culloden on April 16, 1746. 

After a period in hiding, Mercer fled to America and settled in Pennsylvania, where he established his medical practice. At the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1756, Mercer joined the colony's forces. Throughout the war, Pennsylvania's western region faced relentless Indian raids, encouraged by the French. Mercer began his service as part of Colonel John Armstrong's expedition against the Indians at Kittanning, where he was wounded. 

In 1758, he served as a lieutenant colonel in the siege of Fort Duquesne and was later given command there to secure the West. Around that time, he befriended a colonel named George Washington, who commanded the Virginia Regiment, which performed similar duties protecting Virginia's western frontier.

The British capture of Fort Duquesne

Colonial Life: Prosperity and Family

When the war ended in 1763, Mercer moved to Fredericksburg, Virginia, and reopened his medical practice. It makes one wonder if his connection with Washington influenced his decision to relocate to the Old Dominion. When Mercer arrived in Fredericksburg, it was a lively Scottish community. 

Fellow Scot John Paul Jones's brother farmed nearby, and Jones himself hoped to settle there permanently. He became a well-known figure and businessman in town, purchasing land and engaging in local trade. His medical practice brought him into contact with many prominent Virginians, including George Washington's mother, Mary Ball Washington, who became one of his patients. 

In Fredericksburg, Mercer married Isabella Gordon, started a family, and had five children. Later, he purchased George Washington's childhood home, Ferry Farm, with the hope of making it his permanent residence.

Mary Washington was a patient
of Mercer's (seen here as a younger woman)

Run up to War

Like many Virginians, Mercer supported the Patriot cause as the American Revolution approached. He joined the Fredericksburg Committee of Safety and, on April 25, was among the members of the Independent Company of Fredericksburg who wrote a letter to then-Colonel George Washington, expressing concern when the British removed gunpowder from the Williamsburg magazine. Because he was Scottish, the Virginia Convention skipped over him for command of the first Virginia regiments in 1775. 

However, he was appointed commander of all the minuteman companies in the four counties around Fredericksburg. Early in 1776, Mercer's military experience led the provincial congress to appoint him as colonel (commander) of the 3rd Virginia Continental Line. Future President James Monroe and future Supreme Court Justice John Marshall served under him.

James Monroe served under Mercer

From Surgeon to General

In June 1776, General George Washington, in urgent need of experienced commanders, persuaded the Continental Congress to appoint Mercer as a brigadier general. Mercer's experience and reputation led Washington to place him in command of the "Flying Camp' during the New York campaign. These were inexperienced militias requiring strong leadership and strategic training. The Flying Camp served as a special military reserve, but despite Mercer's efforts, it suffered from shortages of equipment and men and was disbanded by year's end. Mercer also oversaw the construction of Fort Lee, which overlooked the North River across from Fort Washington in Manhattan. 

During the darkest days of the war, Mercer played a key role in Washington's night march on Trenton on December 26, 1776. He helped plan and execute the crossing and led his brigade into Trenton from the west—driving the Hessians out of the town and into an orchard, where they were almost annihilated. Mercer was also instrumental in repulsing the British during the second Battle of Trenton on January 2, 1777. The next day, Washington's army advanced on the British garrison at Princeton, New Jersey. 

Mercer's brigade, consisting of 350 men, encountered Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood's force—two British regiments and some dragoons, totaling about 1,200 men—near Stony Brook Bridge. A fierce firefight erupted in an orchard grove. The fiery Mercer refused to retreat despite the overwhelming odds and charged into battle. 

The better-trained British forces pushed his men back, causing them to break ranks. As Mercer attempted to rally his troops, his horse was shot from under him. He quickly got to his feet but was soon surrounded by British soldiers who mistook him for George Washington and ordered him to surrender. 

Outnumbered, Mercer drew his saber and fought fiercely. He was eventually knocked to the ground, bayoneted seven times, and left for dead. When Washington learned of the British attack and saw some of Mercer's men retreating, he personally entered the battle, famously rallying Mercer's men and forcing the British regiments to retreat.

Death of Hugh Mercer at Princeton

A Nation's Loss

After the battle, Mercer's body was taken to a nearby farmhouse where Washington's leading physician, Dr. Benjamin Rush, attended him. However, Mercer died of his wounds on January 12, 1777. His loss was a significant personal blow for Washington, but it was an even greater loss for the new nation, which would have benefited from his leadership both in peace and in war.

Mercer Statue at Fredericksburg

Cold and Stalemate at Whitemarsh

This week marked the anniversary of Whitemarsh: the final part of the third year of the American fight for independence. For several cold winter days, rebels and redcoats marched and counter-marched as General George Washington aimed to lure British General Howe into an end-of-year disaster.

Background

General William Howe

General William Howe's Philadelphia campaign of 1777 was one of move, lose, move, lose for George Washington and the Continental Army. Despite that, Howe and the British high command remained frustrated because the rebel army and its general continued to remain a force they would need to reckon with if winter quarters were to be enjoyed in peace and comfort. 

Despite his failed surprise attack on Germantown on 4 October, Washington remained unbeaten. He maneuvered his forces from post to post, ultimately settling in at a place called Whitemarsh, about 13 miles northwest of Philadelphia. Both Howe and Washington knew that an unbeaten American force in the field remained a psychological as well as a real threat to British success. 

So in early December, Howe decided to make one last attempt to destroy Washington's army before the onset of winter and began preparations for the attack on the rebel forces rumored to be in the process of moving to a new camp. But Washington's intelligence network, led by Major John Clark, became aware of British plans to surprise the Americans, possibly through a Quaker housewife, Lydia Darragh. Because of the timely, accurate intelligence, regardless of the source, the Continental Army was ready.

Lydia Darragh was a Phila. nurse
and the housewife said to have warned
Washington of British plans

Ready for Action

Undaunted by weeks of retreat, Washington and his men prepared for battle. Washington faced pressure from Congress due to defeats at Brandywine and Germantown and aimed to make amends before the campaign ended. He always pictured a Breed's Hill-style fight where his troops would break British lines with heavy fire from fortified positions. For their part, his men were eager for a chance to vent their frustrations on the 'lobsters.' 

The Americans had ample time to strengthen their defenses, so despite being cold, exhausted, and hungry, they were ready to act and seek retribution. Washington positioned them on high ground—another Breed's Hill scenario seemed possible. Meanwhile, Howe planned to give the rebels the fight they craved. The British hoped for a swift, decisive victory over the struggling rebels before winter arrived, as he too faced troubles of his own.

And Vindication

A British Army capitulated at Saratoga in October—an army many believed Howe was obliged to help. Defeating Washington would be a sweet victory. Both Howe and Washington were overshadowed by the recent devastating British surrender at Saratoga. Howe for not doing more to support Gen. John Burgoyne, the defeated British commander, during the ill-fated invasion from Canada. Washington himself was criticized by some in Congress and the Army who questioned his leadership.

British surrender at Saratoga had
both Washington and Howe in its shadow

The Action

The British and Hessians left Philadelphia at midnight on a bitterly cold December 4th, with 14,000 troops. Howe moved his men in two columns. One, led by Lord Cornwallis, headed up Germantown Pike. The second, commanded by Hessian General Knyphausen, marched toward the American left. Just before dawn on December 5th, they arrived at Chestnut Hill, where they encountered about 15,000 Americans ready for action. 

Attempting to provoke a fight, Washington sent the Pennsylvania militia toward Howe's left. The militia was repelled after a short but intense fight. This led to days of maneuvering by Howe's forces, who attempted to find an opening in Washington's defenses through various feints and marches. The Continentals and militia responded well. Washington's men were prepared and managed to prevent any potential breakthrough. 

Frustrated, the British burned homes and farms, fueling resistance among a populace that was almost subdued by the British advance. Howe launched a final effort to turn the American left flank on December 7th. He advanced forces along Edge Hill, a ridge running parallel to the American lines. But the Americans, including militia and Virginia riflemen under Dan Morgan, responded. After intense fighting, the Americans were again pushed back, but the British retreated. 

This started a long day of small, sharp, yet inconclusive skirmishes throughout the wooded ridge, with no clear outcome. Frustrated at neither breaching the American defenses nor luring them into an open battle, Howe decided to withdraw. He led his army back to Philadelphia. Washington also felt frustrated, as his hope of luring Howe into a second Breed's Hill never materialized. The casualties for Whitemarsh were 90 Americans killed or wounded, and 60 British killed or wounded.

Howe at Whitemarsh

A Winter of Stalemate

Whitemarsh marked the end of the long and eventful campaigns of 1777. Howe and his army are secure in comfortable winter quarters in Philadelphia. A few days later, on December 11, Washington leads his army into the cold comfort of winter quarters at Valley Forge. The uneventful battle at Whitemarsh is unremarkable on its face. But in retrospect, the inconclusive series of skirmishes set the stage for the famous winter at Valley Forge that marked the birth of a professional American Army. As for Sir William Howe, his request for relief was approved, and he would leave the Army the following spring.

Stalemate at Whitemarsh was the last action
before George Washington led his army to
a place called Valley Forge

Stone Arabia

The Place

The lead-in title might make you think of a Crusader-era battle cry or pot advocates targeting the Middle East. But it’s actually about a place—a location in central New York with fertile fields and lush forests, bordered by freshwater and settled by Germans. The name itself, spelled and pronounced in various ways, has long sparked curiosity, speculation, and myth—and may always do so. The terms Stone Arabia, Steen Rabi, or Steen Raby, in their Dutch spellings, are found in Dutch writings long before they appeared in America. 

Regardless of its origins, Stone Arabia, in the eastern Mohawk Valley, became a land of promise for different groups of settlers, especially Germans from the Palatinate and Swiss who arrived in the 17th and 18th centuries. Interestingly, the name was sometimes used to describe areas on the west side of the Hudson near Kingston, the site of today's North Troy, and finally the central Mohawk Valley. According to land records, just before the Revolution, Stone Arabia referred to a region later called the Palatine District, stretching from the Nose to the Falls and northward to Canada. However, on March 8, 1773, it lost this broader meaning, and from then on, the name was limited to the land patent in the Mohawk region.

The Valley

Sir William Johnson, His Majesty's agent to the Indians
of New York

The Mohawk Valley was controlled by Sir William Johnson, a well-known British representative to the Indians in central New York. From the early 1700s until the start of the American Revolution, the area experienced white settlement and frequent conflicts with the native Iroquois. British policy aimed to limit settlement by whites and to pacify the Indians. Johnson generally succeeded in carrying out this policy. However, tensions between the natives and settlers always simmered just below the surface and sometimes erupted into violence. Sir William's influence over both whites and Indians helped keep the peace, though he had to work hard to maintain order, restrain unruly settlers, and calm the natives when their pride or sense of justice was offended. 

To the Indians, as well as to Johnson and his British superiors, the white settlers appeared land hungry. Johnson sought to curb land settlement and maintain a balance with the natives. These tensions set the stage for violent conflicts when the American War for Independence broke out, making Stone Arabia the western edge of the fighting. By the time the Revolution started, Stone Arabia was well populated and its economy thriving. Churches, schools, stores, mills, blacksmith shops, lime kilns, taverns, and boatyards dotted the landscape along the Mohawk. Each farm boasted an orchard, often serving as the family’s burial ground. Crops such as wheat, flax, potatoes, corn, fruit, hemp, hay, peas, and oats were cultivated, with wheat being the primary crop. The wheat flour from the Valley was worth more in New York City than any other product. The first homes were built of logs; later ones were made of frame or stone. The area was a diverse melting pot of German, Dutch, English, and Indian influences—often called the Mohawk Dutch.

The Revolution Comes to the Valley

Many settlers of Stone Arabia became members of the Valley militia of New York. Before the war, they met regularly for training and were subject to call to arms during emergencies. The Stone Arabia company was part of the 2nd battalion of the Palatine militia. When the struggle for independence broke out, Stone Arabia's settlers were generally patriots. In fact, almost two years before the declaration of independence, the Stone Arabia farmers drafted their own declaration of American Principles on August 27, 1774, at the White Tavern, owned by Adam Loucks. These resolutions read in part as follows:

III [in part]. That We think it is our undeniable Privilege to be taxed only with our own Consent given by ourselves (or by our Representative). That Taxes otherwise laid and exacted are unjust and unconstitutional....
IV. That the Act for blocking up the Port of Boston is oppressive and arbitrary, injurious in its principles and particularly oppressive to the Inhabitants of Boston, who we consider as Brethren suffering in the Common Cause.
V (in part). ...that we will join and unite with our Brethren of the Rest of this Colony in anything tending to support and defend our Rights and Liberties.

A Major Zielly and Andrew Dillenback (who was later killed at Oriskany) were appointed to a committee to gather material for war. In keeping with the spirit of pre-war revolutionary fervor, the people of Stone Arabia stayed alert and informed. And for good reason: they would soon find themselves at a key location in the struggle's Northern Department. The fertile Mohawk Valley and the fields, especially in Stone Arabia, served as supply sources for the Continental Army throughout the long war. In 1780, Washington relied on the wheat and oats of Stone Arabia to feed his army and was determined to prevent them from falling into the hands of the British Loyalists in the area. This set the stage for a small but fierce conflict whose only goal was destruction.

The Fighting Frontier

Mohawk Valley settlers were defeated
 at the Battle of Oriskany in 1777

The region played a key role in the British campaign of 1777, with many Palatinate Dutch serving at Fort Stanwyck and fighting at Oriskany. Two forts, Keyser and Paris, were built on Stone Arabia soil. Fort Keyser, a stone house from the 1740s built by Johannes Keyser, was palisaded and garrisoned by militia troops under Lt. John Zeiley. Fort Paris, originally built in 1737 by Isaac Paris, was a fortified farmhouse and trading post. Inside the palisade, there was also a barracks for 100 men and a blockhouse. Despite—or because of—the forts, the Loyalists and Indian allies struck Stone Arabia twice. The first attack was the Ephratah-Dillenburgh raid in 1778. 

On April 20, 1778, while a small company of twenty militia was drilling, a band of Indians and Loyalists appeared and began destroying homes and barns. Most of the militia went to defend their homes, but a few pursued the attackers. In a skirmish, several militiamen, including a boy of four, were killed. The Loyalists withdrew, but stragglers from the band took a boy captive at Kringsbush and killed a young woman in sight of Fort Klock. These raids, along with others north of the Mohawk River, so frightened the inhabitants that most of those missed by the Indians and Tories moved into the Mohawk Valley to seek protection in the forts. As for the northern slope of the valley, the British effort to scare people away from their farms was a great success.

Fort Klock, Home of Colonel Jakob Klock
of the Palatine Regiment of the Tryon County Militia

Battle of Stone Arabia

Map of the Johnson Raid on Stone Arabia, 1780

Sir John Johnson

On October 19, 1780, Sir John Johnson, William's son and a controversial Loyalist leader, led an army of 900 Loyalists and British Regulars in an invasion of the Mohawk Valley. After following a winding route across southern New York State, they moved north through the Schoharie Valley, entering the Mohawk Valley at Fort Hunter, where the army turned west toward the Canajohary and Palatine Districts. The invaders camped on the evening of October 18 near the Noses, a geological feature that marks the great divide in the Appalachian Mountain chain. 

The next day, they crossed the Mohawk River at Keator’s Rift. They burned Jellis Fonda’s mill before proceeding to attack the settlement of Stone Arabia, located a mile and a half north of the Mohawk River in the Palatine District. Colonel John Brown of the Massachusetts Militia marched his 380 militiamen out of Fort Paris to meet the enemy on a field about a mile from the fort. Outnumbered nearly 3 to 1, he was shot from his horse, and his men fled the field. Brown, who had served at Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and participated in the Quebec invasion, died on the battlefield. With its defenders defeated, Stone Arabia was completely destroyed by the enemy, including the twin Dutch Reformed and German Lutheran churches. Both churches were rebuilt after the war ended and still stand today.

Left in ashes by the raid, the Dutch Reformed Church
was rebuilt in 1788

The Legacy

The raid of 1780, with its widespread destruction, delivered a significant blow to the cause. It is worth noting that there was greater unity among the Palatine farmers in opposition to the British policy than in some other districts in the Valley. However, hardly a family was not split between loyalty to the crown and loyalty to the cause. 

Despite this, we find New York Governor George Clinton (later the 4th Vice President of the U.S.) giving a fitting testament to the spirit of the Stone Arabia settlers in 1781: "Most of Tryon and Schoharie have been destroyed. They are not however abandoned; the inhabitants having recovered themselves, continue to improve their farms and assist in the general defense."

NY Gov Clinton

Stone Arabia exemplified many of the hundreds of localized conflicts that made up a significant but often overlooked part of the American War for Independence. The political struggles and fierce fighting among British, Loyalists, Indians, and Patriots in and around Stone Arabia played a crucial role in early New York history and in shaping an independent America.

Quarrelsome Patriot

This First Patriot is among the many who served their country in diverse and remarkable ways - yet today, they remain virtually unknown to most Americans. These same Americans can recite trivial details about sports or, worse, reality TV. So, wipe the mindless pop culture from your thoughts and take a few minutes to focus on one of the unsung founders of the American republic.

Early Life & Militia Service

One of nine children, Timothy Pickering was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on July 17, 1745. His father was a successful farmer. Pickering attended Harvard College, where he studied law and became a licensed attorney. However, he chose not to practice law and instead became a local civil servant. In 1774, he was appointed register of deeds in Essex. Soon after, he was elected to represent Salem in the Massachusetts General Court and served as a justice on the Essex County Court of Common Pleas. On April 8, 1776, he married Rebecca White of Salem. He became a notable local Whig during the years leading up to the American Revolution. Like many other New England men, he joined the local militia. By 1775, Pickering had risen to the rank of colonel in the Essex County Militia, and in February of that year, he and his men successfully held off a column of British regulars under Colonel Alexander Leslie (see the Yankee Doodle Spies post on Leslie). "Leslie's Retreat" became one of the key events leading to war with Britain. In April that year, open conflict broke out between the colonists and their king. Pickering served with the army assembled around Boston. Recognizing the need for improved standards among the various colonial forces, he published "An Easy Plan for Discipline for a Militia." This manual functioned as the American army's drill guide until the arrival of General Friedrich von Steuben's renowned Blue Book.

Despite his "retreat" Alexander Leslie became
one of the better British generals of the
War for Independence

A Continental Adjutant General

Pickering eventually accepted a commission in the Continental Army—George Washington's response to the British regulars. He played a notable role in the hectic campaigns in New York and New Jersey during 1776. In December 1776, he led a well-trained regiment of the Essex County militia to New York, where General George Washington took notice and offered Pickering the position of adjutant general of the Continental Army in 1777. In this role, he oversaw the construction of the Great Chain, which was forged at Stirling Iron Works. The chain prevented the Royal Navy from advancing up the Hudson River past West Point and protected the crucial fort from attack throughout the conflict. He was widely praised for his efforts in supplying the troops during the remainder of the war. Pickering took over from General Horatio Gates, a former British officer. He served effectively as Adjutant during the Battle of Germantown in October of that year.

The Stirling Iron Works chain blocked the Hudson

A Continental Quartermaster General

Not long after, Congress appointed him to the newly created Board of War. He performed dual roles, continuing to serve as Washington's Adjutant General while helping organize overall war management. Over time, Pickering distanced himself from Washington and focused more on the functions of the Board of War. Around this period, he also became involved with the infamous Conway Cabal, but the cabal dissolved, and Pickering continued his service. In fact, his abilities soon earned him the most difficult post in the entire war effort—except for Washington's. In the summer of 1780, he took over as Quartermaster General, replacing General Nathanael Greene, while still serving on the Board of War. Supplying the needs of the ragged, yet growing, Continental Army was undoubtedly the greatest challenge facing Washington, and the burden of this impossible task largely fell on the shoulders of the Quartermaster General. Nobody wanted this job. The stubbornness of the states frustrated Congress's efforts to raise funds for food, clothing, and equipment necessary to keep the army going. Dishonest contractors and vendors were common—selling substandard supplies for quick profits. But Pickering took it on. Due to shortages of gold and silver, he pioneered the use of "specie certificates" to buy food and supplies. One of his notable achievements was organizing the food and supplies for the Continental Army's epic 1781 march from New York to Yorktown, Virginia. In that sense, he was a pioneer in logistics. The campaign was crucial in forcing the British government to enter negotiations. Pickering remained Quartermaster General for the rest of the war.

Pickering's logistics enabled the long march to Yorktown

A Servant of the Republic

After a period of controversial land speculation in Pennsylvania, Pickering had a turbulent post-war career in public service, holding successive appointments under George Washington. These included the Postmaster General, the Secretary of War, and the Secretary of State. Like Washington, Pickering helped establish the new republic and set precedents for how the cabinet functioned. In 1791, Washington asked him to negotiate a key treaty with the New York Iroquois under the great chief Corn-Planter. Pickering successfully negotiated what became the Treaty of Canandaigua in 1794.

Pickering allied with 
Hamilton's Federalists.

When John Adams succeeded Washington as president, he asked Pickering to stay on. Pickering did, but he was strongly anti-France and pro-Britain. This put him at odds with Adams, who was trying to avoid war with the French Republic. Politically, Pickering shifted into the camp of fiery New York politician and former cabinet member Alexander Hamilton. He conspired with others against Adams and was eventually dismissed in May 1800. In 1802, the contentious Pickering and a group of Federalists, upset about the lack of support for Federalists, attempted to gain support for the secession of New England from the Jeffersonian United States. It did not go well.

Pickering in the Cabinet

A Partisan in Congress

Despite, or perhaps because of his efforts, he was appointed to the United States Senate as a senator from Massachusetts in 1803, representing the Federalist Party. Pickering proved to be a staunch Federalist, fiercely opposing Thomas Jefferson and later James Madison in their populist initiatives. He opposed the American seizure and annexation of Spanish West Florida in 1810—anything to counter the expansionist policies of the Democrats was fair game to him. He fought strongly against the Embargo Act, calling for its nullification and even colluding with the British. His extreme agitation led him to read confidential documents on the Senate floor—an act that resulted in his censure. After his term as senator ended, Pickering was elected to Congress in 1812. Like most New England Federalists, Pickering opposed the War of 1812 with England and became a leader in the New England separatist movement.

The Embargo Act engendered much polemic and satire

Post-Public Life

Denied re-election in 1816, the passionate, controversial, and often quarrelsome Pickering retired to private life on a farm near Salem, where he pioneered improvements in agriculture. He died in Salem in January 1829, leaving a legacy of pugnacious and relentless public service as an effective military and civilian administrator who helped create and build a new nation. However, he was also one of the original proponents of factionalism, as well as partisan and regional struggles within the political arena.

Salem MA waterfront