Yankee Doodle Music

I am going out on a very long and shaky limb with this post. I have decided to add a bit of culture to my musings on the time of the American War for Independence, also known as the era of the Yankee Doodle Spies. Music is a reflection of the society and culture from which it springs: aspirations, frustrations, and dreams all collide in a mix that is meant to inspire, influence, and sometimes just entertain. Whether music is composed for the concert hall, salon, church, or tavern, it has an effect on society and sometimes helps transform it. Since the American Revolution was one of the most transformative events in history, its music bears some attention. As I write, I happen to be listening to some of Haydn's string quartets, so I will focus on "serious" music during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies in this post.

Mozart

Within the genre we call "classical" music, the eighteenth century was a time of transition from the Baroque period, which is actually referred to as the Classical period. In some ways, the transition mirrors the overall cultural shift during what is called the Age of Reason. During the eighteenth century, a new awakening to the study and appreciation of classical Greece and Rome led to a renewed interest in classical architecture, literature, arts, and history. The study of those once-forgotten languages experienced a resurgence. Oratory became an essential part of education, as did mathematics and science. 

Music was an important part of 18th-century life

The evolution of music from the more formal and structured Baroque to the less formal and cleaner style of the Classical period is a manifestation of this transitional period. Such music was still closely associated with court culture and absolutism, characterized by its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy. After all, these were the patrons, sponsors, and benefactors.  They paid the bills. However, the new style was also "cleaner" - favoring clearer divisions between parts, starker contrasts, and simplicity over complexity. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, while public taste increasingly preferred comic opera. This led to changes in the way music was performed and written. The central figure of the last quarter of the century was, of course, Mozart. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's compositions characterized the music of the classical era.

Most gatherings included but a few instruments

Across the ocean, things followed, albeit more slowly. The period of Puritan domination (That is, New England) was waning by the 1730s, and musical concerts began to spring up. The first public concert in America, of which we have a record, was held in Boston. This took place in 1731, at a time when the New England ban against secular music was gradually waning. The event, called "a Concert of Music on sundry Instruments," was held in "the great room" of a local dancing master, who was also a teacher, tradesman, and tobacco trader. 

Chamber Music 

A few years later, Fanueil Hall began to be used for musical concerts.  By 1754, there was a concert hall at the corner of Hanover and Court Streets in Boston. The next American city to have a public concert was Charleston, South Carolina. The upper classes already had their private recitals, dances, and such. Then came to New York. In 1736, a "Consort of Musick, Vocal, and Instrumental" was advertised, showcasing various instruments. Philadelphia had its first public concert in 1757. 

Faneuil Hall

But as the largest city in the American colonies, Philadelphia likely had private concerts previous to this, as it had a vibrant culture of entertainment (despite the strong Quaker influences). By the time of George Washington's era, the variety of musical instruments used in America was growing. As early as 1761,  Washington ordered a spinet from England. The harpsichord, and later the piano-forte, were found in many homes and were used at concerts. Violins and cellos were well-known, and the versatile German flute grew in popularity.

Harpsicords were popular

The concert programs of the day offer a glimpse into the instruments most commonly used, as many of them announced the instrumentation of the orchestras that performed, as well as the instruments used by soloists. At least one concert in 1769 included solos on the violin, flute, clarinet, harpsichord, and mandolino.  Other instruments used during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies included the violin, the viola, flutes, and French horns. Trombones were in use, too. 

The violin was among the most 

popular instruments

According to one account, one night in 1755, some trombonists at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, warded off an Indian attack by playing chorales. Trumpets were introduced in America in the early eighteenth century. Woodwinds, such as the oboe and the bassoon, were also beginning to appear. All of these were in very small numbers and scattered near the more developed parts of the colonies. The point is that by the mid-eighteenth century, the colonies were experiencing economic growth.  Cultural expansion followed, and the tools (instruments) made their way across the ocean to fill the need.

The Snare Drum is one of the oldest military instruments

During the mid-eighteenth century, American church music also began to emerge as a distinct entity. So-called Psalm Music was primarily vocal, as was most music in colonial America. The great religious awakening of the mid-century spurred it on. Regardless, this was the harbinger of the unique relationship between church and secular that exists even today. It should be remembered that the same phenomena existed in Europe as well. Most musicians wrote for both audiences. 

The military also had an impact on musical appreciation during the American Revolution. Military bands had both “field music,” primarily fife and drum, to move troops around the battlefield as well as “bands of music.’ The latter were small ensembles hired by officers to play at balls, fetes, and sometimes for the public. These were the antecedents to the later 19th-century bands that became popular in America and Europe and still perform public functions today. The music played on the fife and drum can be identified from published tutors and from tune books written out by the players themselves.  Giles Gibbs's.  The Book for the Fife (1777) represented all the music needed for an army, including military signals and marches, as well as dances, songs, and hymns. It also includes the music to the song we know today as "Yankee Doodle."

Military bands came into their own during the
struggle for independence

In the fall of 1768, British troops landed in Boston to protect crown officials who were being harassed by local citizens and could not carry out their duties. The British regiments had bands of music attached to them. By 1769 these bands were participating in public concerts. The programs included symphonies, concertos, overtures, and songs—not military music, but typical eighteenth-century concert fare. Americans organized their military units along British lines, and military musicians were part of the plan. 

British Bands helped inspire Loyalty to the Crown

The Continental Army, consisting of one artillery and twenty-seven infantry regiments, was formed from the various state militias. Each regiment had eight companies of ninety officers and men, including two fifers and two drummers. Drum majors and fife majors were also appointed in many regiments to instruct and lead the field music. The organization thus provided positions quite a number of fifers and drummers alone—448 of each. Whether or not all fife and drum positions were filled, military music had a forcible impact on the atmosphere of American towns and cities after the outbreak of the war. 

The Continental Army Bands also inspired Patriotism

Legend has it that at the surrender of General Cornwallis’s troops ending the siege of Yorktown, a British military band played a popular tune of the period as the British and Hessians grounded their arms: “The World Turned Upside Down.” There is no contemporary account of this (the story grew out of an early 19th-century memoir) but clearly, the very idea that a musical theme should accompany such a momentous occasion completes the cycle that made music a central part of American culture in the years following America's independence.

The World Turned Upside Down? Musically, politically...

A future look at music during the Revolutionary War will focus on the “pop music” of the day. Songs sung by the masses were used by both sides to rally support for their causes. Out of that genre came the first composer born in America, whom we shall meet another time.

They Called Him Wizard Owl

As I studied the American War for Independence while writing the Yankee Doodle Spies novels, the name of Andrew Pickens seemed to appear at crucial moments in the Southern Campaign. Who was this man? When thinking of the American Revolution in South Carolina, the names Francis Marion, William Moultrie, and Thomas Sumter immediately come to mind. I decided it was time to give Pickens his proper recognition.

Frontiersman vs Cherokee Btave

Frontiersman: This little-known First Patriot was one of the leading South Carolinians and Americans. He was a prominent frontiersman, successful farmer, and accomplished soldier who later served as a South Carolina representative in Congress. Andrew Pickens was born in Pennsylvania in 1739. The son of Scots-Irish immigrants, at thirteen, Pickens moved with his family to find land further south. They traveled the route many Scots-Irish took at the time: down the Shenandoah Valley, where they settled for a while in Augusta County, Virginia. Eventually, they moved on to South Carolina, settling first near Waxhaws on the North-South Carolina border and finally in Abbeville County, near the Georgia line. The family settled in an area called the Long Canes. Here, Andrew Pickens married. He farmed and raised cattle like many other settlers. The young Pickens became familiar with his Indian neighbors and traded with them.

General Andrew Pickens

Patriot: As the American Revolution neared, political sentiments were strong in the South—both for and against. From the beginning, its inhabitants divided into Patriots and Loyalists (or Whigs and Tories). Pickens was an enthusiastic Patriot and quickly became a military leader, initially leading expeditions as a militia captain against the Cherokee, who had allied with the Loyalists in hopes of keeping their lands. In 1779, the British sent soldiers to South Carolina and North Georgia to boost Loyalist support. Now Colonel, Pickens led his three-hundred-man militia in efforts to support the Patriot cause. He defeated a much larger Loyalist force of over 700 men under Colonel Boyd at Kettle Creek in North Georgia, just south of the Long Canes.

Battle of Kettle Creek

Warrior: The victory at Kettle Creek slowed the recruitment of Loyalists on the frontier. But by 1780, the British had taken Charleston, captured the southern Continental Army, and marched inland from the Carolina coast. The situation was dire. When Charleston fell in May 1780, Pickens and other militia leaders surrendered to the British and, under oath, agreed to sit out the war under British protection. However, the Loyalists destroyed his farm and frightened his family, giving Pickens the reason to break his parole and take the field again. He gathered his militia and started waging guerrilla war in retaliation. The war in the South was fierce. Pickens borrowed heavily from Cherokee tactics and employed those skills in partisan warfare. He was brave and clever in leading partisans.

Battle of the Cowpens

In January 1781, British Colonel Banastre Tarlton attempted to destroy an American force led by famed rifleman Daniel Morgan. Pickens was a militia leader in the engagement and played a key role in defeating British Colonel Tarleton. American commander Daniel Morgan decided to use the reputation of the militia as a rabble that wouldn't stand against a disciplined British attack to lure the British in. As they waited for the enemy, Morgan asked them for "just two volleys and then retreat." Easier said than done in most cases. But with Pickens commanding the militia, they did exactly as Morgan asked. 

Dan Morgan issues orders at Cowpens

When the British saw the militia retreat, they thought they had won and advanced straight into Morgan's trap. Pickens's men rallied behind the Continentals and participated in the victory, which was crucial for the Patriots in the South. Until then, they had been repeatedly forced to retreat before British forces. For his "spirited conduct" at Cowpens, the Continental Congress awarded Pickens a sword, and the State of South Carolina promoted him to Brigadier-General in the state militia. 

Pickens appeared at all the key engagements in the South. Besides Cowpens, Charleston, and Savannah, he was at Augusta, Georgia, when it fell. Pickens was at Ninety-Six for more than one of its many engagements. In numerous skirmishes, he used his knowledge of the Cherokee way of war to flush out the many Tories in their midst.

Fort at Ninety-Six

Citizen: After the Revolution, Pickens acquired land in frontier South Carolina on the banks of the Keowee River, across from the old Cherokee town of Seneca. There, he built a house named "Hopewell" and became a backcountry gentleman. He served as a political middleman between the Cherokees and the new American nation. Although Pickens had begun his military career fighting the Cherokee in the Anglo-Cherokee War, he was well-respected by tribal leaders. They called him "Skyagunsta"—or Wizard Owl. In his later years, he sympathized with Indian causes. Among the whites, he was sometimes known as "The Fighting Elder" because of his Presbyterian beliefs. 

Pickens later served in Congress

Like many frontier settlers, Pickens was a family man. He married Rebecca Floride Calhoun in 1765. They had 12 children. Pickens served as a U.S. Congressman. His son, Andrew Pickens Jr., was governor of South Carolina from 1817 to 1819, and Ezekiel Pickens became lieutenant governor of South Carolina from 1802 to 1804. A grandson, Francis Wilkinson Pickens, also served as governor of South Carolina from 1860 to 1862. Andrew Pickens died near Tamassee, South Carolina, in Oconee County, on August 11, 1817. He is buried at Old Stone Church Cemetery in Clemson, South Carolina. 

General Andrew Pickens' Grave at Clemson

On a final note, it is said that Pickens's war experiences helped provide the basis for the Mel Gibson film "The Patriot." And there are some overlaps indicating they drew somewhat from it. Clearly, if the writers had stayed truer to Pickens's remarkable life, the film would have been all the better for it. Certainly, our nation is all the better for it.

Pickens later served in Congress

The Hessians

Who were these guys?

In the days when American schools taught history with some substance, almost all students learned the word "Hessian" when the American Revolutionary War was discussed. These were the tall, fierce foreigners hired to help crush the rebellion. Tall men who fought us with a cold-bloodedness that even unsettled some British officers and soldiers. 

Most of what we learned about the Hessians in school centered around perhaps their lowest point - the battle of Trenton, where a force of over a thousand elite infantry was captured by General George Washington's ragtag, half-starved army. But the Hessians were just some of the Germans King George hired to put down the rebellion. Although they made up the largest group, more than half, since there were German settlers in parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, it was easy to label all the German mercenaries as the same. That name, which struck fear into the hearts of Americans, became a symbol of their fierce reputation.

Who they were

German soldiers made up about a quarter of the British fighting force in America. That term 'Hessian' refers to all the soldiers fighting in units leased to the King of England by various prince-lings of what was called Germany. Friedrich Wilhelm II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, was the most famous among these German princelings, and he had the best mercenary force on the continent. 

During the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies, Germany consisted of over 300 independent yet interconnected states, including dukedoms, princedoms, archbishoprics, electorates, margravates, landgraves, and others. These would be significantly consolidated about thirty-five years later by Napoleon. Most of these soldiers came from Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Hanau, with others recruited from regiments raised in Brunswick, Ansbach-Bayreuth, Waldeck, and Anhalt-Zerbst.

Hessian Grenadiers

The typical German soldier was conscripted from the lower classes of these regions: men who had no other way to avoid conscription, such as paying a tax, leveraging social status, or bribing a corrupt official. Occasionally, these "dregs" included craftsmen, tradesmen, educated men, and other men of substance, as well as the occasionally fallen cleric. However, most German soldiers who fought in America were farm boys from farms that had fallen on hard times. 

Therefore, in most cases, these men were forced into service by circumstances. The fortunate soldier who did not fall in battle or die from disease might reach the rank of corporal or sergeant. But calling the German soldiers mercenaries is a bit misleading. They were soldiers serving in the army of their prince. It was their princes who were mercenaries in leasing out entire regiments and companies to the King of England. This was not uncommon in the 18th century.

Hessian Jaegers zu Fuss und zu Pferde

Where  they served

The first wave of German troops arrived in 1776 to support the British in their planned attack on New York. Their initial engagement was at the Battle of Long Island. Still, the Hessians also fought in many other battles during the Revolutionary War, including Harlem Heights, Fort Washington, White Plains, Savannah, Trenton, Bennington, Bemis Heights, Freeman's Farm, and Guilford Courthouse. 

They served as garrison forces and participated in hundreds of smaller skirmishes throughout the colonies. German troops comprised a significant part of Cornwallis's surrendering army at Yorktown. They were known for their ruthlessness, and American propagandists often exploited that reputation to stir up fear, anger, and resentment against them and their British commanders.

Hessians were present at Yorktown's surrender

How many came

Jaegers

The British hired 30,000 German soldiers, and the payment went into the royal coffers of the German princes, not the troops. The units came from the German states of Hesse Cassel, Hesse Hanau, Brunswick, Anspach, Bayreuth, Anhalt Zerbst, and Waldeck.

               Place               Number sent    Number not returned home

           Hesse Cassel                16,992             6,500

           Hesse Hannau                 2,422               981

           Brunswick                    5,723             3,015

           Anspach - Bayreuth           2,553             1,178

           Anhalt Zerbst                1,152               168

           Waldeck                      1,225               720

The total sent was 30,067 from 1776 to 1782; 12,562 did not return... 7,754 died (mostly from disease) and 4,808 remained in America... Perhaps they were the first great wave of non-English speaking immigrants to America. 

How they dressed and armed

The Hessian soldiers included infantry and hussars (dismounted), three artillery companies, and four battalions of grenadiers. The infantry were sharpshooters, musketeers, and fusiliers armed with smoothbore muskets. The line companies carried muskets, bayonets, and short swords called hangers. They contrasted with the redcoats by wearing dark blue jackets and tricorne hats. In a style unique to the Germans, their traditional queue was twisted so tightly that it protruded straight out from beneath their headgear, resembling a skillet handle. 

The Jaeger units carried special short rifled muskets and were skilled at skirmishing in the rough American terrain. Most were hunters from Germany and excellent marksmen. They wore dark green jackets and hunting-style hats. The grenadiers, easily recognized by their tall miter hats, were the tallest of the soldiers. German troops, especially from Hesse-Cassell, were notably powerfully built. 

The Hessian artillery used three-pounder cannons—called that because they fired three-pound balls. These lighter cannons supported the infantry and were easier to manage in America’s dense forests. A key event during the Americans’ attack on the Hessian Garrison at Trenton in December 1776 was a fight over one of these cannons. Over one thousand Hessian soldiers were captured during this struggle, which arguably prevented the American cause from ending that winter. This story is mentioned in book two of the Yankee Doodle Spies, The Cavalier Spy.

Hessians overrun Fort Washington

How they fought

Well, they fought valiantly. The German regiments were disciplined, capable of enduring great hardship, highly trained, skilled, and most importantly brave. Despite the tough conditions of their enlistment and the strict discipline they faced, they had great elan and esprit de corps. They took pride in their profession and disliked losing. In fact, they always believed they would win. The Germans were well equipped with the best weapons of the time and fought in disciplined companies of forty to eighty men. 

These companies usually formed part of a regiment, often named after its commander or place of origin. With highly professional officers and non-commissioned officers, the Germans made a dependable force with combat effectiveness that exceeded their numbers. German regiments rarely failed to make a significant impact on a battle. They led the attack at the passes on Long Island and stormed Fort Washington's outer works. Their reputation was such that their presence near Washington's army helped pin the American front at Brandywine while the rebel flank was turned upstream. I could go on.

Hessians adapted well to combat in America
Jaegers skirmishing

Who led them

 The German officer corps, both commissioned and non-commissioned, was outstanding. They led from the front, and many fell in combat—most famously Colonel Johann Von Rall, who was mortally wounded while trying to rally his regiments for a counterattack after the Continental Army surprised them at Trenton. Another noted Hessian officer was Colonel Carl von Donop, who fought in many battles during the war until he was killed leading an assault at the Battle of Red Bank in 1777. 

Von Knyphausen

The commander of the Hessian forces was Wilhelm, Reichsfreiherr zu Innhausen und Knyphausen. He took over from the original commander, Von Heister, who commanded the Hessian troops effectively if not with distinction. After the disastrous Hessian defeat at Trenton, for which Heister, as corps commander, bore the ultimate responsibility, the old and ailing general was called back to Hesse in 1777. It’s worth noting that Heister clashed with Howe over strategy. 

Unlike other British generals, he could be pretty blunt with the commander-in-chief. This might have also contributed to his return. Knyphausen remained the senior German officer for the rest of the war. He led the attack on Fort Washington, and one of the redoubts was later renamed in his honor. He also commanded the New York garrison but returned to Germany in 1782 for health reasons. General Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg succeeded him as commander of the Hessian troops in New York.

Von Heister

Legend and Legacy 

Some might argue that the German contingent played a vital but not decisive role in the war. Still, it is hard to see how Britain could have raised as many quality regiments at home to fill the gaps if the Teutonic regiments hadn’t been there. The widespread use of hired foreign troops fueled the Americans' worst fears and prejudices, helping newspapers, pamphlets, and rumors spread myths about these unfamiliar invaders, all to rally the people in what was ultimately a war for hearts and minds. 

While the Hessians did act harshly toward civilians in some cases, many stories were exaggerated or amplified to stir up public sentiment. They were brutal to rebels during combat and treated prisoners more cruelly than the British did, but not more harshly than American Loyalists and Patriots treated each other. These myths and legends grew and still persist. It’s no coincidence that Washington Irving's famous "Headless Horseman of Sleepy Hollow" was a Hessian artilleryman whose head was taken by a cannonball. However, it’s also true that the Hessians were brave and dependable soldiers who added a unique element to the American fight for independence.

Even the USPS contributes to the legend

Middelbrook

Background

Nestled at the start of the Watchung Mountains in New Jersey is the colonial town of Middlebrook. During the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies, Middlebrook was a small village northwest of Bound Brook. Although the village of Middlebrook no longer exists, it has been absorbed into the town of Bound Brook. During the American Revolution, this small farming community sat along the route of two armies engaged in more than just a fight for a continent – it was a struggle for ideas. For the Continentals, it was a fight for a new nation and a new concept of government. For the British Army, it was a fight to preserve the old order and the rights of a King.

Good ground

Gen Washington at Princeton

General George Washington had marched past Middlebrook after the Battle of Princeton on his way to Morristown in January 1777. Its advantage as a strategic position did not go unnoticed by the former surveyor. Late in the spring of 1777, Washington moved his small army of about 7,000 from their winter encampment at Morristown to Middlebrook Heights. 

Why? The ground was good, enabling the Americans to observe the British troops at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. He moved Anthony Wayne's Brigade onto the forward slopes to defend the approaches to the pass. The Americans fortified the already defensible terrain. From these positions, Washington could keep watch on the British garrisons in New York and New Brunswick. But even better, it gave him a position to flank the British if they attempted to cross New Jersey to Philadelphia.

Battleground

However, the British also recognized the strategic advantages of the positions around Middlebrook for the rebels. So on the night of June 13th, 1777, General Lord Cornwallis moved out of New Brunswick, hoping to lure Washington out of his Middlebrook defenses into the open flat land for battle. With Hessians leading his columns, Cornwallis launched a four-pronged attack on the village. Washington responded, but not in the way the British had hoped. 

The commander-in-chief sent the militia, reinforced with some Continentals, to harass the enemy columns. However, most of the Continental Army stayed in their secure positions. By the end of June, a frustrated Cornwallis and his British forces retreated to Staten Island. The British maintained ground near New Brunswick, the Amboys, and at Paulhus Hook (Jersey City), but much of the rest of Jersey was a no man's land where Loyalist and Patriot factions, militias, and criminal elements from both sides fought. Middlebrook was at a critical point in this no man's land.

Lord Cornwallis

Observation point

The attack on Middlebrook, along with other forays and feints, caused General Howe to change his strategy. The British commander-in-chief launched a naval operation toward the Chesapeake to capture the rebel capital at Philadelphia from the south. Most of the British regiments left their fortress in New York for a combined sea-land campaign aimed at driving the rebels from their capital, but they left British General Burgoyne's army to struggle in the wilderness of upstate New York. 

Thus, the small engagement at Middlebrook played a crucial role in a chain of events that helped alter the course of the war. Recognizing the need for a new plan for the 1778 summer campaign, the British abandoned Philadelphia and again focused on New York. Washington struck from the rear, and the largest pitched battle of the American Revolution took place at Monmouth. When the British column retreated to its secure zone around New York and nearby areas, Washington once more used the Middlebrook region as a base to observe and threaten the British.

Winter Encampment

In November 1778, George Washington once again moved the army back to the Middlebrook area. It provided a natural defensive position and allowed him to monitor the British foothold in New Jersey. Washington established his headquarters at the Wallace House in what is now Somerville. 

The main army, made up of brigades from Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, along with the Delaware regiment, the artillery corps, and support units, camped along the base of the Watchung Mountains. There, they benefited from some shelter from the weather, abundant trees for construction and firewood, and support from a mostly patriotic local population and an active militia. Fortunately, the winter was relatively mild. The Continental Army stayed at the second Middlebrook encampment until late June 1779. That winter at Middlebrook would later be known for a symbolic event.

First Flag

There is an interesting footnote to the story of Middlebrook. On June 14, 1777, Congress adopted the Flag Resolution, establishing the famous Betsy Ross flag as the national flag of the United States. An official flag was brought from Philadelphia to be flown at the Middlebrook encampment before the soldiers took the field for the summer campaign season. 

In an act of great symbolism for the young and struggling nation, the first thirteen-star American flag was flown at an American army base. One wonders what the beleaguered but determined soldiers would think if they could see into a future where their descendants would champion the very ideas they fought for in campaigns across the globe. Or a future in which the flag they flew over Middlebrook would be flown as a symbol of liberty at hundreds of army bases across the yet unexplored continent and later on scores of foreign shores.

Flag at Middlebrook Encampment

In the Navy!

 The Naval Advantage in 1776

This past week marked the anniversary of the British landing on Long Island and the battle that shares its name. As most readers of this blog know, the invasion and the events that followed set the background for my novel, The Patriot Spy. I thought I’d use this blog to discuss the role of naval power in the campaign. The American Army under General George Washington essentially had no information about British plans after General William Howe withdrew his besieged forces from Boston. However, it wasn’t hard to see that the main British advantage in the war was the Royal Navy.

1776: British fleet at Staten Island 

Early Success, Defeat, and Triumphs

Destruction of the Spanish Armada

In some ways, the story of Britain is tied to its navy. During the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies, Britain had the greatest navy in the world and, more importantly, had over a century of knowledge and experience in using that advantage effectively. Many are familiar with the victories of the 16th-century English navy under Elizabeth I against the Spanish. However, during the 17th century, England and its navy went through a period of upheaval. 

The English Civil War, three wars with the Dutch (who had surpassed Spain as the world's leading mercantile and naval power), and the "Glorious Revolution" all affected the navy's development, both positively and negatively. During that period, the English and Scottish fleets merged but, on paper, remained separate. The Dutch Wars initially favored the Dutch, who achieved remarkable naval victories. 

Still, Britain gained the key Dutch colony of New Amsterdam (1664), and it learned how to develop its navy through the experience of defeat. By 1692, the British boasted the finest fleet in the world. The political alliance with the Dutch, which recognized their ruler William of Orange as William III of England, strengthened both navies. 

In a curious partnership, the Dutch fleet operated under British admirals in the subsequent wars with France and Spain that dominated the late 17th and most of the 18th century. The British were able to expand their global operations, and through a series of wars, they captured colonial possessions both large and small to support their naval and commercial needs.

Dutch burn the British fleet at Chatham

 Britannia rules the waves!

Royal Navy in Action

The Royal Navy of 1776 had a confidence rooted in achievement. Part of that success included what would later be called "combined arms" operations—using Royal Marines for small sea-land actions and collaborating with the Royal Army for major campaigns, mainly moving forces and guarding supply routes. This approach was developed during the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) in North America. 

As the rebellion began, the Royal Navy became Britain's greatest advantage over the poorly connected coastal colonies, which were linked by a few poor roads. America depended on the sea, and controlling it was central to any plan to suppress the colonies. Trade could be blocked, starving the colonies that relied heavily on Britain for many finished goods. 

Ironically, this policy was among the grievances that sparked the rebellion. Britain's dominance at sea swayed some Loyalists' sympathies or at least their hostility toward the rebellion. To many, it seemed reckless to challenge the world’s strongest naval power—what was then the greatest global naval force ever. These concerns proved valid for most of the war. America had no real navy and was hurriedly building a small one, mostly to boost national pride rather than for strategic advantage. 

In reality, America’s naval strength came from privateers—many from merchant ships converted due to British control of the seas—another irony. Effective naval use allowed Howe to escape a tactical trap in Boston. It enabled him to execute a successful sea envelopment and move into New York Harbor, shifting the war’s focus and pace in Britain's favor.

Invasion, they're coming!

British landing at Gravesend on Long Island
(near the site of Brooklyn's Verazano Bridge)

The Royal Navy isolated New York from the sea and made its port useless. The port gave the city its strategic importance, as New York in the 18th century was not the largest city in America. The Royal Navy provided reconnaissance, naval gunfire, and transport for a series of landings at Staten Island, Gravesend, Kips Bay, and Westchester (Throgs Neck, Pelham, etc.). 

British naval movements confused the Americans and threatened nearby areas. General Howe had no plans to attack. More importantly, it limited General Washington's ability to move troops and forced him to defend a larger area than he could cover with his soldiers and guns. Surprise, maneuver, and firepower are key multipliers in any conflict, but they are even more effective when you also have overwhelming forces! 

As discussed in The Patriot Spy, only extremely unfavorable winds and tides kept the other Howe (Admiral Sir Richard, William's brother, and naval force commander) from surrounding Washington's forces on Long Island, who were tucked into a desperate defensive position on Brooklyn Heights. 

If conditions had been right, Howe's fleet could have bombarded Washington from behind and, combined with the army besieging Washington's front, forced surrender in the summer of 1776. Would losing George Washington and a large part of the Continental Army have ended the war then and there in Britain's favor? Well, that's the subject of another blog.

The Lady was a... Spy?

The  General... 

Many British officers who served in the American Revolution had previously been active in North America during the French and Indian War. Some, like Horatio Gates and Charles Lee, moved to the New World, settled in America, and fought for the Patriots during the Revolutionary War. Others took American wives, continuing the tradition of war brides that still exists today. 

Thomas Gage

One such officer was General Thomas Gage. Gage was born in Firle, England, as the second son of a Viscount. He attended the prestigious Westminster School and, upon graduation, joined the British Army as an ensign. He rose through the ranks and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1751. His regiment was sent to America in 1755. In fact, his career included many important military events as the British Empire expanded during the mid-18th century. But that is another story.

The Lady...

Margaret Kemble Gage in 1771

In America, Gage proved to be a successful and innovative officer, rising to high command and eventually governing Canada after the French surrendered. However, in December 1757, the war and life in America took on special significance for the accomplished officer, now a brigadier general. He spent the winter in New Jersey, where he was tasked with recruiting colonists for the British army. He was stationed near Brunswick, a small town not far from New York City. 

There, he met Margaret Kemble, a well-known beauty with notable standing in the area. Margaret was the great-granddaughter of Stephanus Van Cortlandt, the former Mayor of New York City, who came from one of the wealthiest families in the city. 

Her father was Peter Kemble, a prosperous businessman and politician from New Jersey. On December 8, 1758, Gage married the beautiful and well-connected Jersey girl. For many years, the Gages played a prominent role in New York society. By all accounts, they were happily married, and most attested that they were an ideal couple. Their marriage was further exemplified by the births of five daughters and six sons.

The Governor...

Thomas Gage eventually became in charge of all British troops in North America. After the war with France ended, he observed a shift in political tensions in the colonies toward resistance. Unfortunately, he would soon be part of the effort that led to open rebellion. The colony of Massachusetts was the most defiant. 

In May 1774, King George III appointed Gage to Boston, appointing him military governor of Massachusetts in an effort to restore order in the stubborn colony and enforce the hated Parliamentary acts. His wife, Margaret, arrived in Boston in late 1774. Although Gage initially earned the respect of the colonists, they also viewed him with some suspicion. Margaret was upset about the conflict in the colonies and struggled with her divided loyalties. She hoped her husband would not take actions that could lead to the loss of her fellow countrymen’s lives.

Action...

Margaret's brother, Stephen Kemble, was her husband's Intelligence Officer. His main asset was the prominent Dr. Benjamin Church, a member of the Massachusetts Congress and its Committee of Safety. It seems the doctor had an expensive mistress and turned to spying for the British to support her. While the Patriot Congress met in Concord (October 1774 and March through April 1775), sworn to secrecy, Dr. Church regularly provided Gage with summaries of the proceedings. 

Benjamin Church

Church was later exposed (no pun intended), but that’s another story. General Gage learned that the Massachusetts militia was storing arms and ammunition in Concord, about 20 miles northwest of Boston. He also heard that Samuel Adams and John Hancock were in Lexington. Gage made plans to capture them along with the munitions. 

However, the rebels led by Dr. Joseph Warren had their own spy network. Warren learned of the upcoming British troop movements on April 18 and confirmed it through a confidential informant connected to the British high command. This prompted the famous "midnight ride" of Paul Revere and others to warn the rebels. The "shot heard round the world" resulted. But just who was the informant? Unfortunately, Warren was killed at Bunker Hill, so the identity of the informant remains a topic of speculation.

Intrigue...

And as we all know, speculation is fun. The warning was issued before the redcoats marched toward Lexington and Concord, so the informant was not a low-ranking soldier or officer. Gage himself was questioned because he admitted telling only one person of his plans before informing his top commanders. 

However, there is widespread speculation that Gage was betrayed by his American-born wife, Margaret. Could the long-term spouse of the top British officer really have been an American agent? Would she betray her husband and her king? And if so, how? Did her brother play a role? Stephen was reduced to the rank of captain after the Battle of Lexington and Concord. Why? 

Doctor Joseph Warren

But let's focus on his sister. According to reports, Margaret allegedly warned Warren of her husband's plans on April 18th. A clergyman from Roxbury named Rev. William Gordon later noted that Warren's spy was "a daughter of liberty unequally yoked in the point of politics." 

Many have suggested she was sympathetic to the colonial cause. There is evidence that she held her own political sentiments and that the now-burning dispute between Britain and America filled her with sadness. Margaret once admitted to an acquaintance that she hoped her husband would not be the instrument of killing her countrymen. But many Loyal Britons shared similar views. 

Overall, there is no proof of her espionage. Many discussions have taken place about communication. How could Warren communicate with the wife of the British governor? How could he trust an intermediary with such a sensitive mission? How could he risk a personal meeting? These challenges confront every intelligence operation, especially those with high potential for gain, such as assets like the wife of the British governor. 

But perhaps the strongest "indicator" of Margaret Kemble Gage's possible espionage is that her husband soon after sent her to England. This blog considers her a very likely source, if not a full-fledged spy. The reduction in her brother's rank around the same time suggests a connection. Maybe Gage's other confidant in his plans was his intelligence chief. Perhaps she got her information from Stephen. In 1775, the stakes were high enough to risk passing information to the American side.

End of the Affair...

Gage remained in America for another year but returned to England feeling somewhat disappointed with his record in Boston. Over the following years, their marriage deteriorated, marked by estrangement. Jersey girl Margaret Gage spent the latter half of her life in England, never going back to her birthplace. She died at age 90 in 1824, outliving her husband by nearly 37 years.

 

 

The Last Fort

The Place

When General George Washington and the Continental Army arrived in New York in early summer 1776, the strategic situation was grim. British control of the waterways and superiority in artillery meant that New York, especially the island now called Manhattan, could be threatened from any direction. Although the British approach from the sea made a southern attack most likely, the commander in chief had to prepare for assaults from all sides. To his troops' dismay, Washington ordered fortifications to be built all around the island.

The men worked tirelessly with shovels and picks. Despite their efforts, most of these were primitive and poorly constructed earthworks. However, on June 20, 1776, some Pennsylvania battalions of the Continental Army began building a five-bastion fort at the corner of what is now Fort Washington Avenue and 183rd Street. 

The quickly assembled earthen-walled structure lacked a water supply and a strong barricade to fend off attackers. Still, it was located on the highest hill on Manhattan Island. This made it an ideal spot for the fort, with views over the Hudson River to the east, the Manhattan valley stretching south to what is now 120th Street, and protection on the north side from high ground that commanded the Kings Bridge approach. They named it Fort Washington to honor their commander-in-chief.

The Namesake

Colonel Robert Magaw
hoped to defend the fort

Washington correctly recognized the high ground at the north end of the island as strategically important. Along with its "sister" fort, Fort Lee (named after Washington's deputy commander, Charles Lee), Fort Washington controlled access to the Hudson Valley, the Bronx, Westchester, and areas bordering New England. It also posed a threat to any forces occupying the central and lower parts of New York Island. 

However, without support and with limited troops, Washington's namesake was a liability to his plans and would jeopardize many of his best men. After the British forces led by Lieutenant General William Howe defeated the Continental Army at the Battle of White Plains, they moved to seize Fort Washington, the last American stronghold in Manhattan. 

Recognizing this threat, Washington issued a "discretionary" order to General Nathaniel Greene to abandon the fort and evacuate its 3,000-man garrison to New Jersey. Yet, the fort's commander, Pennsylvania Colonel Robert Magaw, refused to abandon it. He believed it could still be defended against the British and begged Greene to let him hold the position. 

Greene agreed to leave Magaw in charge until he could consult with Washington, and then crossed the Hudson to review the situation. Sadly, the usually sluggish Howe attacked the fort before Washington could fully assess the situation.

The Battle

Throughout that summer and fall of 1776, Lord Howe's British land and naval forces carried out an effective, albeit slow, land-sea campaign that pushed the Continentals off Long Island and most of New York Island. By November, the last position the Americans held on Manhattan was around Fort Washington at the northern tip, known as Harlem Heights. Now, with Washington retreating from White Plains and heading into New Jersey, he decided to strike. 

Howe planned three attacks: Brigadier Lord Percy was to attack from the south up the island, Brigadier Matthews with the light infantry and Guards was to cross the Harlem River and attack Baxter on the east side, supported by Lord Cornwallis with the grenadiers and the 33rd Foot. The main attack was to target Colonel Rawlings’ position, with Hessian troops commanded by General Von Knyphausen. An additional assault was to be launched on the same side by the 42nd Highland Regiment (the famous Black Watch) under Colonel Sterling.

British ships bombarding

Early on November 15th, General Howe demanded the fort's surrender. McGaw refused. The British batteries across the Harlem River and the frigate Pearl launched a bombardment against American positions. Percy's forces moved forward to attack. By noon, Matthews landed on Manhattan and began his assault. The American commander defending the works was killed, and his militia retreated to the fort. 

However, the main threat originated from the north. General Knyphausen crossed from the Bronx onto Manhattan at Kingsbridge. His two Hessian columns attacked American positions along the high, wooded ground. After fierce fighting, Rawlings’ riflemen withdrew into the fort. Meanwhile, Hugh Percy, leading about 2,000 regulars through McGowan's Pass, attacked Colonel Lambert Cadwallader and his 800 Pennsylvanians on the south side of the fort. 

Hessians Overrunning Fort Washington

and Wounding of Mary Corbin

Simultaneously, the 42nd landed on the east side in a diversion and pushed inland behind Cadwallader’s forces. This caused the Americans manning the outer defenses to fall back to the fort as well. With all troops confined inside Fort Washington and under heavy fire, Magaw surrendered to Hessian General Knyphausen. Casualties were high on both sides: the British suffered 450 casualties, including 320 skilled Hessians, while the Americans endured 2,900 casualties, most of whom were prisoners.

The 42nd landing

Aftermath

From across the river, its sister Fort Lee, George Washington watched helplessly as his last hold on the strategic island of New York evaporated. Almost 3,000 men from some of his best regiments marched off into captivity. As critical, valuable, and irreplaceable supplies and munitions, including 150 cannons, fell to the British, who occupied the fort and renamed it Fort Knyphausen after the Hessian general instrumental in capturing it. 

Washington watched in frustration from Fort Lee

The high ground covering the northern approach to Kingsbridge was turned into a separate fort, named after New York's last Royal Governor, Tryon. A third fort was named Fort George. The fact that the British constructed three forts where a single large American fort once stood is significant. In Magaw's defense, he was not given enough men to properly man and defend the extensive positions. 

This is a common theme in fort defenses (to be repeated at Ticonderoga the following year)—they could become a death trap if the garrison wasn't large enough. The British army and its sympathizers then occupied the city until the American victory in 1783. After the war, remnants of the fort disappeared, and the surrounding area became known as Washington Heights. Granite paving marks the former contours of Fort Washington in the southern part of nearby Bennett Park.