Gambling through Defeat and Victory - The Winter Gamble

Darkness Descends

The month of December 1776 was indeed a month that tried men's souls. The British had the Continental Army on the run since they invaded Long Island in the summer. The "victory" at Harlem was the closest the hapless Americans came to checking Lord Howe's onslaught.  The only thing between Washington and an early British victory to end the rebellion was, well, Lord Howe. Smart strategic move after move, well-executed naval landings, precision tactics, highly professional sieges were the hallmark of Howe's offensive. But he moved all too slowly and time after time Washington escaped the noose.

Cornwallis crossed with five thousand crack troops to begin
the route through the Jerseys

Winter Quarters

Lord Cornwallis

 By late December Washington's army was safe across the Delaware River and expecting to defend the nation's capital, Philadelphia. He had less than 2500 "effectives," and that number would soon drop with many enlistments ending in January and the desperately needed replacements not arriving until early the next year (if at all). The Continental Army lacked supplies of all kinds, especially
clothing.  Not just winter clothing - any clothing!  But Washington had help from Howe, who halted General Cornwallis 5,000 crack troops at the Delaware. Washington's men had confiscated every civilian boat for miles along the river and Cornwallis had to wait for the British pontoon trains before crossing.  Instead, Howe, thinking Washington beaten, ordered his army into "winter quarters" and himself scurried back to New York and his mistress. Cornwallis' wife meanwhile was reported ill and he headed to New York to catch a ship to England before the winter made crossing impossible. To guard his New Jersey holdings, Howe left brigade-sized garrisons at Princeton, Brunswick, Bordentown, and Trenton.

An Army at rest and an Army formed

General John Sullivan

As soon as he escaped Cornwallis' onslaught, Washington began to think about his next move.  Congress abandoned the capital and fled to Baltimore. Congress also offered him near-dictatorial powers, which he eschewed. Then, the help he had counted on, then dismissed, suddenly arrived.  General John Sullivan, returned from British captivity, led the division of General Charles Lee across the Delaware and joined Washington near Yardley, New Jersey. Washington then decided to act on his plan,  he would gamble on a surprise attack against the British garrisons closest to the Delaware:  Bordentown and Trenton.  Washington's bold gamble required meticulous planning, daring, and luck. His first bit of luck was Sullivan's arrival.  His second, his ability to convince the troops to extend their enlistments long enough to enable his plan. Washington personally met with the men and his sincerity and obvious dedication to them and the cause turned the hearts of just enough. The third would be the weather, and lastly, maintaining the element of surprise during a time when not just Loyalists but even despondent patriots might give him over to the British.  Spies were everywhere.



The Crossing

Washington hid his movements from Loyalist spies and got his army to McGonkey's Ferry on the evening of the 25th of December.  The weather was cold with snow flurries, but the ice had not yet formed on the river.  The crossing commenced after dark but delay after delay put Washington's timetable off.  He hoped to march some nine miles downriver and surprise the Hessian garrison under Colonel Johan Rall at dawn.  The key was the guns.  Henry Knox assured him he'd be able to get the 18 cannon across.  But the snow picked up in intensity and ice floes began to form.  With each wave of boats that crossed in the darkness, the danger grew. But Colonel John Glover's Marblehead sailors, the famed Gloucester Regiment, exceeded the heroics of Long Island.  A crossing delayed would not be a crossing denied... at least at McGonkey's.  Further downriver two other divisions of Pennsylvanians under Generals Ewing and Cadwallader were supposed to cross and seize Bordentown and assist at Trenton. But the ice floes had thickened to where neither could cross that night.  That part of Washington's gamble had failed.

The Miracle

Washington's forces did not fully cross until well into the wee hours.  Then began the night
march in two columns, one along the river road and another, which Washington joined, moved further inland. The men, cold, wet, and tired, struggled over rugged, rocky, and wooded land. Limbs frozen and half-blind by the elements, the soldiers wore patches of white paper to guide them in the dark.

All the time, Washington kept hoping the other columns could cross and that the Hessians were not alerted and waiting. His worst fears were realized in the former but his greatest expectations realized in the latter.  Arriving well into the early morning light, the Americans were amazed to find the little town still sleeping and the weather clearing. The sound of a cannon signaled the two-pronged attack. Surprised, the Hessian professionals formed up best they could to meet the invaders but within an hour the battle was over. Rall, the enemy commander, fell mortally wounded and his men soon grounded arms.  Not one American had died and only a few were wounded. Washington's gamble succeeded... but his winter gambling had only just begun.

Continentals rush a Hessian gun to open the battle

Gambling through Defeat and Victory

The Gambler

The Gambler

Apologies to Kenny Rogers and no, His Excellency did not have a betting problem.  Although as a landed Virginia planter he was no stranger money won and lost at the horse race or whist table. Ever the champion
of order and probity, Washington knew that excessive gambling was problematic.  He is quoted on the subject, "Gambling is the child of avarice, the brother of iniquity, and the father of mischief." But during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies, it was sometimes a necessity, at least on the field of battle.

The North and Early Success

Even as he settled in on a risk-averse Fabian strategy for the war, Washington understood that a successful commander must be ready to take calculated risks. Since his Army was almost always out-manned and outgunned, this need to take risk came all too often. At Boston in 1775, Washington rolled the dice three times:  outfitting ships to take on the British Navy, dispatching troops to Canada, and sending a small band to capture Fort Ticonderoga and its powerful battery of guns. The Canada campaign failed, and his navy's efforts only pointed out the need for a Continental Navy, but Ticonderoga fell to a surprise attack.  The latter gave the Americans control of the largest fortress in the colonies and more importantly the heavy guns the Continental  Army needed to make the siege of Boston the success it was.

Heavy guns from Ticonderoga dragged across snowy mountains to Boston

The Middle Brings Failure

After Boston fell, the British threatened the middle states (or colonies as you prefer) with a thrust at New York. Not yet the largest city in North America, New York was strategically important because of its location and its excellent harbor. In addition, New York had a larger Loyalist base than in New England. Washington rushed his forces south in anticipation of an invasion by sea. When the British seized Staten Island, Washington risked dividing his forces and deployed about a third of his army on Long island to stop an anticipated phased approach to taking the Island of New York (Manhattan). The result was a sound walloping as the vastly outnumbered forces on Long Island only escaped complete destruction by the further gamble of a night move during a storm in the face of the enemy. Two principles of war thrown out in desperation. Washington gambled in the secret war as well - sending the unprepared Captain Nathan hale behind British lines and launching the "wonder weapon" (not) - the submarine Turtle. The last New York gamble was leaving a considerable body of valuable troops at the Fort named Washington on upper Manhattan. This was done to maintain a foothold on the island in the hope of using it to retake the island. The result was the loss of the fort and its men, who could have done better work in the upcoming campaign for the Jerseys. 

Americans faced overwhelming British forces at Long Island

The South Brings Triumph

That would be south (some might say central) Jersey. Most Americans know about Washington crossing the Delaware and a few know it led to a victory at Trenton. But few realize that this unlikely victory was one of Washington's greatest gambles.  His forces were spent and demoralized after a chaotic retreat across the Jerseys. Washington's army abandoned Fort Lee to General Cornwallis and skedaddled from Hackensack, through Newark,  New Brunswick, and Princeton. In December, Washington managed to get his meager force across the Delaware to the safety of Pennsylvania. After a long year of fighting, with barely fifteen hundred underfed and equipped "effectives" and a demoralized nation ready to give up the glorious cause, Washington's situation was bleak. Enlistments were running out, supplies nowhere to be had, and a panicky Congress had fled the capital, Philadelphia. To cap it off, the British captured Washington's second in command, General Charles Lee, in a daring cavalry raid. Those were the times that tried men's souls and the entire world knew the end was near.

General Howe

 Nobody would have blamed Washington for taking his meager forces into winter quarters and try to come back in the spring. That's what the British commander was expecting and doing himself.  To the consternation of many of his senior officers, General William Howe placed his army into winter quarters just when he had Washington beaten. Brigade sized elements garrisoned Princeton, Trenton, and Bordentown, while the rest of Howe's army remained in or near the comforts of New York. Fortunately, Lee's division made it to Pennsylvania without their commander, providing Washington just the boost he needed to try a desperate gamble to save the revolution from ending that winter. How he succeeded in this gamble will be our next discussion.

First Patriots, First Veterans

In the Beginning

Society of the Cincinnati Crest

Before the Veterans of Foreign Wars, before the American Legion, and even before there was the Grand Army of the Republic, there was... the Society of the Cincinnati. The Society of the Cincinnati is America's oldest patriotic organization, founded in 1783 by officers of the Continental Army and their French counterparts who served together in the American Revolution. Its mission is to promote knowledge and appreciation of the achievement of American independence and to foster fellowship among its members. During the 18th century, Republican Rome was often used as the model for an ideal society. So, not surprisingly, The Society was named after Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, who left his farm to accept a term as Roman Consul and served as Magister Populi (with temporary powers similar to that of a modern-era dictator). He assumed lawful dictatorial control of Rome to meet a war emergency. When the battle was won, he returned power to the Senate and went back to plowing his fields.

A Band of Brothers

Henry Knox
The Society's Founder

The idea of a society of officers came from Major General Henry Knox, the Continental Army's chief of Artillery. He saw it as a means of maintaining the bonds among the army's officers, the "band of brothers," many of whom suffered eight years of privation during a struggle that was often deemed hopeless. As the commissioners in Paris were meeting to establish the terms of the peace treaty, Washington's main army hovered north of New York as insurance against a last-minute surprise British thrust. The Continental Army
was still woefully equipped, fed, and paid, and much unrest among the men and officers festered. So, the idea of the Society as a means to bind the officers to each other and the new nation.

A Society Formed

The first meeting of the Society was held in May 1783 at a dinner at the Verplanck House in Fishkill, New York. It was chaired by Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton, perhaps his age's most organized man! The participants agreed to stay in contact with each other after the war. Membership was generally limited to officers who had served at least three years in the Continental Army or Navy; it included officers of the French Army and Navy above certain membership would devolve to their eldest male heir. Significantly, members of the considerably larger fighting forces comprising the state militias were not entitled to join the Society. This caused great tension and opposition to the Society later on.
Officers in the Continental Line who died during the War were also entitled to be recorded as members.

First Patriot Controversy 

During the time of and immediately after its founding, the Society was distrusted by many Americans, especially those who formed the faction that eventually became Thomas Jefferson's Republican Party.  It was viewed as the progenitor of an aristocratic class aimed at establishing George Washington as King or dictator. The fact that members had to be direct male heirs of the Continental Army officers did not impress most Americans. George Washington himself was sensitive to this and pushed back on taking an active role in the organization that named him its president.  So Henry Knox often filled in as a substitute. But Washington served as the first President General of the Society of the Cincinnati from December 1783 until his death in 1799.  His advocacy of the Society's interests, as well as the sheer strength of his reputation, helped establish the Society of the Cincinnati during its formative years. His support and counsel against aristocratic appearances were crucial when widespread opposition to the Society existed. Washington's leadership stabilized and guided the Society of the Cincinnati as president-general for the first sixteen years of its existence.

The Society Today

Today, the society is a non-profit with the mission of educating on our nation's founding and fostering an appreciation of the principles of the American Revolution.  Headquartered at the (very impressive) Anderson House in Washington, DC, the Society maintains a small museum and library. It hosts a variety of educational events that are open to the public, including lectures and book signings, concerts, themed wine tastings, and children's programs. Exploring aspects of the American Revolution, the Society's history, and Anderson House, these events are an important part of the Society's educational mission.

The Musket

The Shot Heard Round the World

The weapon most closely associated with the American Revolution, that is, the times of the Yankee Doodle Spies is the musket. Regardless of who fired the first shot at Lexington Green in 1775, it most certainly came from the barrel of a smoothbore musket. The musket is an icon in American lore and its use during the struggle for independence (as well as before and after) has repercussions that continue right into today's politics and headlines.  Throughout history, certain peoples, certain cultures, certain societies have been linked to a specific weapon: the Romans carved an empire with the short sword from Iberia; the Mongols swept across Eurasia with the composite bow; Islam spread through the Middle East and North Africa on the edge of the scimitar.  And then there was the English longbow. The ubiquitous use of this simple yet elegant weapon not only presented English kings victories over more powerful opponents, it helped shape the status of the yeoman and thus helped forge a fledgling middle class of citizen warriors, in England. Ironically, the citizen warrior, transplanted to America would overturn a regime bolstered by paid professionals and hired mercenaries.

First Firefight: Lexington

What They Fired

Fast forward to colonial America. The culture of the longbow was forged into the consciousness of the Britons who settled America. Instead of a six-foot stave flinging yard-long arrows the settlers of the new world relied on the smoothbore musket using the French style flintlock firing mechanism.  These were at once simple, yet complex weapons. By the second half of the 18th Century, the most advanced flintlock muskets were made by the French but the English quickly followed their lead in design.  Then, as today, ease of manufacture and cost were factors affecting what type of weapon would be supplied en masse to troops in the field. In America manufacturing was restricted. The colonies were seen as sources of raw materials, not needed to compete with English shops and mills.  But America had plenty of gunsmiths and a burgeoning gun industry was in place at the time of the revolution.  But the exigencies of war required masses of weapons as the older model muskets from the French and Indian wars wore out or became obsolete. Where the British had a robust supply chain, America relied on weapons smuggled from offshore or captured on the field of battle. Add the German muskets to the mix and one begins to see a war that featured a variety of weapons. When the French and Dutch entered the war, America's supply of quality European weapons of all types, but especially muskets, improved greatly. And Americans did make their own line of weapons, often from European parts.

The Minute Man relied on his musket

A Gun for All Seasons

I don't have the time to delve into the multiple types of weapons used so I'll profile two of the most noted.   The British began the war still using the Long Land Service musket, sometimes referred to as the Brown Bess. It had a barrel length of 46 inches, weighed over 11 pounds, had a caliber of .753 inches, and fired a 490-grain ball charged by a 124-grain powder charge (although some of the powder was used to ignite the charge described below).  Its overall length was 62 inches. This presented a clumsy and but reliable weapon.  But by the  1770s, the British began replacing this with the Short Land Service musket of similar construction and technology (sic) but shorter a 39-inch barrel and a smaller charge. It had better balance than the Long musket although it was only a few ounces lighter.  The French had several muskets in use during the time of the revolution, many made at the famed Charleville works - all 60 inches in overall length. They were 1773, 1774, and 1777 muskets.  Each weighed around 9 pounds and had a barrel length of 44 3/4 inches. The caliber was .69 and which, like the latter version of the Brown Bess, were carried by French infantrymen through and beyond the Napoleonic Wars. There were many, many types of muskets used besides these and I haven't accounted for carbines, fusils, naval muskets, and rifles.  More on all these later.

Muskets were the basic weapon of both sides

How They Fired

The weapon was simple but the firing process complicated.  Normally, the powder and ball (a lead bullet that ranged from a half to three-quarter inch in caliber), combined in a paper cartridge. The shooter began the process by biting off a piece of the powder end of the cartridge and pouring some of the black powder into the flintlock's firing pan. He then rams the ball and powder cartridge (powder side first) down the barrel, brings the weapon to his shoulder and pulls the trigger hoping that the hammer's flint, striking the firing pan's frizzen (steel plate) would actually spark and ignite the powder causing an explosion of the charge in the barrel and propelling the projectile downrange (so to speak). Now, there were numerous other variables that could complicate an effective and accurate shot: like putting the hammer into full cock, following the rigid manual of arms (when with a trained body of men), weather conditions, powder build-up, smoke, and, oh yes, enemy fire. Theoretically, a well-trained soldier could fire five such shots a minute.  In reality, only two or three were achieved in the heat of battle. Accuracy was not a factor for the British who drilled their men to fire in volleys at masses of the enemy.  But it was for the Americans, who had fewer resources and made every attempt to make each shot count. The British did however have light infantry units and Loyalists who tended to fight more like the rebels. How accurate could they be? A trained marksman could theoretically hit a target at 75 yards but the British line infantryman was trained to point his barrel at the enemy without aiming - the volley would take care of that for him! 

Loyal to a Fault?

A House Divided

The American Revolution was as much a civil war as a rebellion.  Yes, the colonies rebelled against the king and parliament's laws, but not everyone entered into rebellion. And most who joined the rebellion did so initially to defend their rights as Britons. Many more (some say most) remained indifferent to it.  Although it had no grand capitals or palaces as in Europe, America in 1775 was thriving. The Atlantic seaboard was a constellation of small cities and towns, with plenty of well-run farmsteads between them.  In the south, many (but not all) of those were cash producing plantations. Trade was growing and merchants were making money. People were prosperous and healthy compared to Europe because of the economy, a better diet, and less crowded living conditions. In 1775, the American colonies had arguably the best standard of living in the world. Many saw this prosperity as a direct result of America's place within the British empire and saw no reason to put it all at risk. Then came the taxes to pay for the war against the French.

Who are these people?

John Grave Simcoe

The Loyalists, (and initially many patriots), saw themselves first and foremost as British subjects loyal to their King. Politically, they were Tories. For many that about ended any discussion about America's status and relegated the discussion as to how best retain certain British liberties. Many of the Loyalist leadership, such as Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, struggled passionately for a political solution to the troubles. They wanted Americans to retain their rights and obtain self-rule as part of the British empire. One can only imagine the emotions churning as their fellow countrymen, Whigs (the patriots), slowly but surely determined on a complete split.  Imagine that sickening feeling watching your country, your world, slip away from you. Still,  few Loyalists envisioned the outcome would be anything but the King triumphant.  That made the end an even more bitter potion to drink. Some pundits have noted the division in loyalty at the outset of the war was 30-30-30.  One-third rebel, one-third loyal, and one-third neutral.  I suggest that the numbers fluctuated with the fortunes of war and the proximity of the British Army.  But many so-called neutrals, in my mind, were not so neutral.  That's a good starting point but the situation was more complex.  Certain regions like the Mid-Atlantic tended to have more Loyalists than say, New England.  The south was more evenly split as the brutal fighting there attests. As the war progressed and France entered on America's side, the Loyalists numbered between 15 and 20% of the 2.1 million whites living in the colonies.

Why Remain Loyal?

For the Loyalist, it was about, well, loyalty. I know, sounds trite, but those who remained loyal throughout the eight-year war were men and women with a world view that called for an ordered state, the cornerstone of which was a monarch bolstered by royalty, the nobility, and the upper classes. Loyalists were complacent with the world they lived in and did not welcome the disruption caused by rebellion. They had a disdain for the extremism displayed by the patriots.  The Loyalists prided themselves in Britain's superior form of government with representation in two houses of Parliament and a constitutional monarch as head of state. And they had a sense of place and order that came with a class system. They (the British) had defeated the hated French in the Seven Years War and in the French and Indian War in America.  The "empire" had not reached its high water (which would come some 80 or so years later) but the King indeed ruled over a growing global empire held together by mercantile trade.  Trade that they and all "good Britons" profited from. Who could argue?  And who would give that up?  Who indeed...

 

What did they Contribute?

The Loyalists were both a boon and a crutch to the British generals running the war in America. In a way, they were merely a placebo.  British authorities were constantly assured by leading Loyalist figures that most Americans favored the King and were at best neutral in the struggle and thus quite ready to be won over.  So little real effort was made to win the hearts and minds of the Americans. In some ways the thinking was loyalty coaxed was no loyalty at all. This meant the rebellion would be crushed by British power. The Loyalists readily played their part. They formed regular units akin to the patriot Continental Line and had all sorts of local Loyal militias.  In the "Cowboy versus Skinner" guerrilla fights they had the Cowboys. And they had Loyalist spies and sympathizers everywhere ready to tip off a British commander as to the whereabouts of the hated rebels.  That, coupled with the most powerful army and navy in the world, should have made suppressing the rebellion a quick and simple task. In numbers, the Loyalists under arms were substantial. At any one time during the course of the war  an average of 10,000 Loyalists were in well organized and equipped "regular" units.  And this did not count numerous Loyalist militia units that ebbed and flowed with the pulse of the conflict.    George Washington would have traded all of Mount Vernon for that number in Continental Line. By most accounts, the Loyalists of all stripes fought well. And although they had nowhere near the number of great leaders as the rebels, they had some very good ones such as Colonel John Graves Simcoe (Queen's Rangers); General Cortland Skinner (New Jersey Volunteers); General Oliver Delancey (Volunteer Corps); and Colonel John Hamilton (North Carolina Volunteers). In some theaters, particularly the south, Loyalist irregulars were considered even more effective fighters than Loyalist regulars.

Loyalists fought ferociously but vainly in most battles
especially at King's Mountain

What was their Vision?

Loyalist plans for America's future centered on some sort of local representation within the construct of the British empire. In the early days of the political struggles, prior to open rebellion, that was the overwhelmingly popular view in all the colonies. But after Lexington and Concord, the slippery slope grew slicker as the British made mistake after mistake.  When the scales tilted toward rebellion the Loyalists had to improvise both in political and military action.  But they never had a real plan and certainly no strategy.  Why would they need one?  They were, after all, Britons.  They had overwhelming power on their side. They had the King and all his wealth and military might to fall back on. I believe that was ultimately their undoing. Over-reliance on the British authorities, military and civil, made the Loyalists complacent and even dependent. Since losing to the rebels was inconceivable, developing a comprehensive Loyal alternative never really emerged. It certainly wasn't articulated to the populace. Conversely, as the war progressed the British placed less and less stock in Loyalist political and military usefulness. By war's end, the British found the Loyalists somewhat a nuisance and the Loyalists became resentful of their benefactors.

What was their fate?


I plan future deep dives into the Loyalist cause but obviously - they lost. They lost big time:  land, slaves, homes, families, and pride. With bitter and despondent hearts, some 80,000 or so left the 13 colonies for "British" lands such as Canada, East Florida, the West Indies, and Great Britain itself. Their struggle continued as the now largely impoverished diaspora was treated poorly by its one-time benefactor.

Loyalist refugees flee to
Canada (most went by ship)

How they Fought

Mongol Warriors 

Myth

Most wars have more than their share of urban legend, mythology, and plain old disinformation. Sometimes it is deliberate.  For example, the Mongols encouraged and spread myths about the size of their armies,  The results:  just the idea they were coming caused many cities, kingdoms, and peoples to surrender without a struggle. Always the best way to win wars. I'll use the myth busters theme to debunk or discuss some of the popular myths of the American Revolution of which there were not a few. After all, the 18th century in general is a misunderstood period of history - calling it the Age of Reason comes to mind as one myth.  Reason has been around since man walked the earth. It is how he reasons that has changed with the advent of the printed word and literacy that expanded in the 1700s.

Soldiers

Thought I would begin with some musings on how the armies fought during the war. Here the myth centers around the indomitable and indefatigable American patriot using his frontier skills against an unimaginative and drone-like British soldier. The patriot is most usually a "Minuteman," citizen soldiers expert with the
famed long rifle picking off stupid redcoats and oxen-like Hessians. Yes, there really were Minutemen (in Massachusetts), and the militia was the mainstay of the Cause. When they performed well, things generally went well. But their performance (and reliability in terms of sticking around) was sketchy throughout the war. Perhaps we'll go into the why in a future blog but the fact is the militia, in a pitched battle, had a poor record.

Tactics

This leads to the myth of the war being an irregular conflict. The military leadership of the Americans, beginning with General Washington, attempted in almost every case to fight a "Euro" style of war. In the 18th century that meant either a war of "posts," attacking or besieging strong points, or attempting to defend the same. If a war of "posts" was not waged, then a war of maneuver and the open battle was desired. Washington favored the latter. Remember, most of the American senior leadership had fought in the French and Indian War as British soldiers.  They studied and learned British tactics, techniques, and procedures. Although Washington never received the British Army commission he sought, he fought with them in Braddock's failed campaign against Fort Duquesne, and later organized the Virginia militia along British lines. Conversely, the British learned a lot about woodland warfare during the French and Indian War. Their flank companies, light infantry, and grenadiers were adept at irregular fighting and as the war progressed, the line units adapted as best they could. In addition to European -style volley fire, both sides resorted to individually aimed fire, depending on the tactical situation, terrain, etc.

                                                        British infantry fighting in forest

Leaders

Battle of Camden

Several Senior American officers had been British regulars in the Seven Years War.  Charles Lee, a former British officer, became Washington's second in command.  Horatio Gates became commander of the Northern Department where he won laurels at Saratoga, and the Southern Department where he was disgraced at Camden.
So the American ideal was to fight the British Army as a "regular" field army and not a "rabble in arms."  The American counter to the British regulars and Hessian mercenary was the Continental.

The Continental

The Boat

Fans of the fabulous German naval flick, Das Boot, should not necessarily be disappointed by my little bait and switch. As I write this blog, it is the anniversary of the first submarine (sort of) attack in the American Revolution.

Development of a Secret Weapon

David Bushnell

The history of weapons development in Connecticut is a long one. The nutmeg state has been the center of weapons development from colonial through modern times. Think Colt, Norden, etc. In the early 1770s, a Yale man named David Bushnell began developing underwater explosives. When the war with Britain erupted, he turned his efforts toward a delivery system. He moved his work to Old Saybrook, Connecticut, where he developed a submersible boat that could attach one of his underwater charges to a ship. Bushnell named his boat the Turtle, although it looked more like a shellfish. The Turtle measured 10 feet by 3 and 6 feet tall.   Letting water into a bilge tank lowered the Turtle into the water. It climbed when a  hand pump evacuated the water. Crude hand-cranked propellers moved the boat. The Turtle held a crew of one and could operate underwater for thirty minutes and at three miles an hour.

Diagram of the Boat

In the summer of 1776, the British invaded New York and seized western Long Island (see my highly acclaimed novel, The Patriot Spy), so Bushnell's boat was moved back to Connecticut. The Americans, driven from post to post by superior British soldiers, weapons, and discipline, were even more outmatched by the Royal Navy.  Desperate times called for desperate measures.        

 

British landing at Staten Island

                             

The Black Operation

In a secret operation (the term black op was not coined back then) approved by General George Washington,  an expedition by the Turtle was launched in New York harbor. An hour before midnight on September 6, a Sergeant named Ezra Lee began his daunting mission: navigate the untested Turtle through hazardous waters in an attack on British Admiral Richard Howe's flagship, the HMS Eagle. We know Howe from earlier posts.  Black Dick was the brother of William Howe, the British commander in chief in North America. Taking out his ship (and possibly him) would be what we today call an asymmetrical attack. 

The Turtle takes on the Eagle

The Eagle was moored near  Governors Island, just off the southern tip of the island of New York (Manhattan). Yankee rowboats towed the Turtle from the Battery to within striking distance of the British ships floating at anchor. Lee struggled to navigate for over two hours, and his chances seemed bleak. Then suddenly, the river's tidal currents subsided. Lee managed, against all odds,  to reach the Eagle! He tried fixing an explosive charge to the hull, but he failed.  The Turtle's boring device struck metal - likely a  plate connected to the ship's rudder. Tired and struggling to stay afloat and to breathe, the undaunted Sergeant Lee tried once more to pierce the hull.  However, he was unable to keep the Turtle beneath the ship.

 

Treachery

Unknown to Sergeant  Lee (or George Washington), a spy had alerted the British to the possibility of some sort of unconventional attack.  Expecting subterfuge, alert British soldiers on Governors Island spotted the submarine and rowed out to investigate in dark waters. Rather than risk capture or an unwanted explosion, Lee cut loose the "torpedo," a specially designed explosive device intended to sink the Eagle. The torpedo floated half-submerged towards the approaching British boat. Fearing the worst, the British turned their longboat around and made straight for Governor's Island. Sergeant Lee, meanwhile, pedaled madly towards the safety of The Battery. Fortunately for the British, the torpedo got caught in the strong currents of the confluence of the North (Hudson) and East rivers and exploded, sending plumes of wood and water high into the dark September sky. But fearful of another such attack, the British ships pulled anchor and moved to the upper bay. 

A spy may have alerted the British

Both Ezra Lee and David Bushnell went on to serve in other battles and campaigns. Sergeant Lee served in several pitched battles:  Trenton, Brandywine, and Monmouth.   Bushnell headed several other "mining" operations along the Delaware River and served at Yorktown. His torpedoes wreaked havoc near Philadelphia.

Bushnell also received a medal from the commander in chief after the war. It is known that many "black operations" were only grudgingly recognized by Washington - all of them after the conflict. His Excellency understood that secrecy must be maintained before, during, and after covert operations. Bushnell moved to Georgia after the war, where he died.  After the war, Lee returned to Connecticut.  Remarkably, both men lived into the third decade of the next century.

What Gives?

Most of the account of the attack comes from Ezra Lee's report.  Of the events of the night of September 7th, 1776, the British logs are strangely mute. They record no attack by the rebels nor any explosions in the vicinity of the Eagle.  So what gives?  Did this actually happen?  It seems implausible that Lee (along with Bushnell) would concoct a tale of failure...or would he? Another attack was tried a month later with similarly disappointing results. It is axiomatic that proponents of a program zealously pursue them, sometimes fudging figures or achievements to maintain continued support.  Or did the British keep the attack secret to protect their spy? Would they forgo the obvious propaganda value of exposing a foiled attack? Were they hesitant because they were unsure that future attacks might succeed? Then there is the matter of historiography -  some British naval historians assert the Turtle could not have maintained itself and navigated as the Americans claimed.  So they believe it was a hoax. If so, this would not be the last hoax operation in America's military history. Maybe the hoax was on them.

Another rendition of the Boat

The Red Lion Inn

Most Americans know little of the American Revolution in New York and even less about the war on Long Island - which in 1776 meant the area on Long Island today known as Brooklyn. Sadly, those who actually live in the "How Sweet it Is" borough (aka Kings County), possibly know the least.  History is ultimately about people and places, yet most Americans know little of their local history. I confess to sometimes falling into that category.  I blame the localities - not the schools for failing to properly celebrate themselves.  Okay - rant over. Time to discuss a place, specifically a building, that was center stage for a few hours during the largest battle in the American War for Independence.

There is no existing image of the Red Lion Inn.
The building itself is Howard's Tavern located at the Jamaica Pass
Both were half-way houses.

The Tavern

The Red Lion Inn was named after the tavern that English King Henry V rested in after defeating the French at the Battle of Agincourt.  So it is somewhat appropriate that the first action in the first real British victory of the American Revolution took place near the inn. The Red Lion Inn was at the junction of three country roads: Martense Lane, which followed what is now the southern edge of today's Green-Wood Cemetery; the Narrows Road, which came up the shore of New York Bay from Denyse’s Ferry; and the Gowanus Road, which led back up to Brooklyn Heights. This is roughly 39th Street and 3rd Ave. in Brooklyn, although other accounts have it on 4th and 40th. I follow Mark M. Boatner's, "Landmarks of the American Revolution," as my guide. Boatner asserts than many of the battle markers in Brooklyn are imprecise. I agree. You can read an earlier blog of mine about my personal visit to that part of Brooklyn a few years past.

The passes and the British flank march around the Americans.
The Red Lion lay along the Flatbush (western-most)
pass on the left

The Action 

Gen James Grant

On August 27, 1776, the Battle of Brooklyn began when a British column under General James Grant attacked American pickets defending near the Red Lion Inn. Some accounts say the British were foraging for melons when they spooked a rebel picket. It was in this, the western-most pass that American Major General William Alexander (a Jersey boy) aka "Lord Stirling" stood with the largest detachment defending the Heights of Guan. The British commander was General James Grant, a Scot, who was also quite stout of heart and physique. Grant hated rebels and urged his men forward
with a ferocity rarely seen from the British. His column of some five-thousand professionals rolled into the pass like thirsting for action. But Lord Stirling was able to organize some of the Americans into line of battle on a piece of high ground just off the Gowanus Road. He was joined by a two-gun artillery battery that ranged the road. Grant's troops formed calmly into battle formation (lines to provide maximum volley fire to the front) and advanced up the road. Thus perhaps the first open field battle of the war ensued. Stirling held a good position and the initial British thrust was repulsed by American musket balls and cannon shots. Grant brought up some of his own guns and then pounded the American position. His job was to pin the unsuspecting Americans while the larger wing of the army completed its envelopment. Sometime later Grant sent a force to the left of the road but Stirling countered with a detachment that stopped the British.

Lord Stirling

The  Finale

From 7 to  11 a.m. the Americans put up a stubborn resistance, but eventually, Grant’s forces pushed them back up the Gowanus Road toward the old Stone House. From there, thanks to a heroic counterattack by Lord Stirling, the remaining Americans were able to reach safety in Brooklyn Heights, the British objective, which was vital to the defense of The City of New York. Stirling led 400 men from the Maryland and Delaware Continental Line in several frontal assaults on the British troops who had gotten around the defenders and now blocked the way. All but nine were killed, wounded, or captured in the action. From those Heights George Washington watched one-third of his force get annihilated. This is the seminal event in my novel, The Patriot Spy.

Delaware Regiment on Long Island

A Factor?

The Red Lion Inn was not a factor in the battle, say in the way the Old Stone House was.  However, it was a crucial landmark.  During a time when maps were few and inaccurate, this is no small thing. Orders often referred to such landmarks: bridges, mills, taverns, or farms. And so accounts on both sides referred to "the Red Lion" or "the Red Lyon," as a way of explaining their location during a certain time of the battle. One would think a placard hung out front depicting a red lion, as many taverns used visuals during a period when most men could not read.

Marker at Greenwood Cemetery commemorating
action near the Red Lion Inn (note Howard's tavern is the visual)

How(e) did he lose?

Okay, sue me.  I am the king of bad puns.  But today, August 10th is Lord Howe's birthday so now let's move on to the subject at hand.  With an overwhelming professional army, paid German mercenaries (world's better fighters), a large Loyalist following, real money, and the best navy in the world - how could Lord William Howe lose his job, and set a trend that led to an impasse and ultimate defeat by the pitiful rebels in America? Howe assumed command of British forces at Boston in 1775, replacing General Gage, whose failures included Concord, as well as Bunker Hill. Howe's leadership set the course of British activity from then until his recall in early 1778. When his reinforcements arrived, he commanded the largest force ever committed by England in America during the times that tried men's souls...

William Howe

 Let us profile William, the 5th Viscount Howe before we discuss his demise. We can start with his origins.  William Howe was born on August 10th, 1729 to the 2d Viscount Howe and Charlotte Von Keilmansegg, daughter of the Countess of Leinster and Darlington.  That helped launch him and his two brothers on grand military careers.  But it gets better - his grandmother was the illegitimate daughter of King George I.  That made him a cousin to George III. Illegitimate or not - connections (plus land and title) counted for a lot in Georgian England. Howe (and his brothers) served their kinsman King during the Seven Years War (our French and Indian War). William rose to command the 58th Regiment of Foot as a lieutenant colonel. To say he served gallantly and efficiently is an understatement. At the siege of Louisbourg, in Nova Scotia, he led an amphibious landing that earned him a commendation.  Howe's greatest achievement of the war (but not his last), was leading a force of elite light infantry up a steep and narrow trail that climbed the cliffs overlooking the St. Lawrence River. His bold gambit under cover of darkness surprised the French and enabled General Wolfe's army to defeat the Marquis de Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham outside of Quebec. This victory ultimately placed French Canada under British rule. Later in the war, Howe went on to other successes in Canada, France, and Cuba.

 Howe's brother George ( general) died during the French and Indian War and William assumed his seat in Parliament in 1757. His politics were, as they said in those times, "Whiggish." The Whig party, while not liberal by today's standards, favored restrictions on the authority of the King. He was sympathetic to many of the grievances of the Americans and would maintain that sympathy throughout the American War for Independence. Assuming command of British forces besieged in Boston, Howe was promoted to lieutenant general in January 1776.  Howe was a methodical planner and understood tactical, operational, and strategic warfare better than most of his contemporaries.  To that end, he was ably assisted by his equally sagacious brother, Admiral Richard Howe. Richard, called "Black Dick" by the Royal Navy tars due to his swarthy appearance, was a bold and charismatic leader. With more reinforcements on the way, the Howes initiated a strategy of isolating New England from the other colonies rather than trying to conquer it.  A grand naval maneuver moved his forces to Newport, Rhode Island, and from there made an "envelopment from the sea" on New York, via Staten Island and Long Island.  This campaign provided the backdrop for my novel, The Patriot Spy.

The Howe brothers put together multiple amphibious landings, sieges, sweeping flanking maneuvers under darkness, and won several pitched battles. Really a masterwork of combined arms warfare 18th-century style! Howe eventually occupied New York and drove Washington's army across the Jerseys in a  blitzkrieg-like fashion. Howe liked Americans (but not rebels) So in the Jerseys, Howe's whiggish ways led him to attempt a clumsy form of rehabilitation that I believe, had it worked, might have ended the war.  But it didn't, and his grand maneuvers, successful assaults, and (not so) hot pursuits ultimately ended in failure. To cap this off, Howe's decision to move south in his own campaign against the rebel capital at Philadelphia sealed General John Burgoyne's fate at Saratoga in 1777 and this proved the turning point (sorta) in the war.

Howe liked Americans so much he took one as his mistress.  Mrs. Elizabeth Loring was the beautiful young wife of Loyalist schemer, Joshua Loring, who traded his wife's charms for a position as Commissary for Prisons, a post that offered  Loring opportunities for graft at the expense of his charges.  The starvation and disease that plagued American prisoners throughout the war attested to that fact.  Howe's interest in his amiable companion led to accusations that she was causing him to tarry to the point of letting victory slip from the grasp of the victorious British.  Many ribald poems and ditties were crafted by citizens and soldiers to celebrate the affair and poke fun at Howe.

One such ditty went...

Sir William he,

snug as a flea,

Lay all this time a snoring,

Nor dreamed of harm

as he lay warm,

In bed with Mrs. Loring.

And another...

Awake, arouse, Sir Billy, 

There's forage on the plain. 

Ah, leave your little filly, 

And open the campaign.

So where did Howe fail?  Simply put, he was not a closer - except, it seems,  in bed. And he did not hold the respect of his two main subordinates, Charles Cornwallis and Henry Clinton. Howe did move at a ponderous pace at times.  The blitz across New Jersey was led by the advanced guard under General  Cornwallis.  Throughout the campaigns under Howe, Cornwallis and Clinton chafed and complained that decisive follow-up was lacking in Howe.  That Howe's slow approach enabled George Washington's beleaguered forces to escape time and again. Howe, sure of ultimate victory, preferred a methodical approach, all the while hoping the rebels could be reconciled. Although he outmaneuvered and outfought Washington from New York to Philadelphia, he never crushed him.  Washington waited out two long winters in fear that Howe would come after his weakened Continental Army but escaped that fate.

Henry Clinton

The surrender of Burgoyne's army sent chills from Horse Guards to Hampton Court.  Parliament erupted. Professional armies cost money and the Royal Treasury was not without limits. Sensing the pressure, Howe resigned as the winter of 1777-78 was ending. His occupation of Philadelphia offered no strategic advantage to the British war aims and Lord George Germain, Minister for the Colonies, accepted his resignation.  With Charles Cornwallis back in England to tend a dying wife, General Henry Clinton would assume command.





The story closes in a bizarre manner. Howe was sent off with a wild and expensive farewell party called the "Mischianza." This was a Bacchanalia-like mix of music, plays, exotic costumes, and exotically clad women. The event ended in a grand revue with fireworks and no small amount of food, drink, and reverie. The organizer of the event was Major John Andre, who would later become famous for his recruitment of the spy, Benedict Arnold. Many British officers attending the Mischianza felt it was an over the top display of luxury during a time of war and privation. Sir William Howe returned to England and continued to hold a series of relatively unimpressive posts until his death in 1814.

How I spent my Summer Vacation - Part II

Let me say upfront this is the first summer that I have been able to go on two different trips - one north - one south. However, both took me to coastal beaches. And both took me back in time...at least notionally. Part two took me to North Carolina.  I briefly lived in North Carolina many years ago but my Army duties and other interests kept me from truly exploring the state.  This trip convinced me of the error of my ways. I stayed at Kill Devil Hills on the Outer Banks.  My place was within sight of the place where the Wright brothers changed the world forever and about twenty-five yards from the beach.




Driving down to the Banks took me through some notable places during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies.  I took Highway 15 and then 17 instead of the interstate. The route took me through the Virginia Piedmont to Fredericksburg, which was an operating seaport during the 18th century. There begins a trip through the upper tidewater region. Mary Washington's last home, purchased for her by her son in 1772, is in Fredericksburg, Va.

American field guns at Yorktown

Highway 17 takes you through Gloucester, which is across the York River from the famous town of that name. Crossing the York River you find yourself at historic Yorktown. The National Park Service maintains a fabulous battlefield center there and the park extends into part of the town itself. As most know, a combined French-American force besieged General Cornwallis there and caused his surrender in 1781, forcing the British to begin negotiations with the rebels and the French.

My GPS routed me through Yorktown, Newport News, Smith Island, and finally to Portsmouth and meandered south. At that point, I left 17 for the more traditional (and traffic-laden) approach to the Banks. Had I stayed on 17 I would have passed near the Great Dismal Swamp, a hundred-mile square area of marsh connected by a series of small streams - all heavily wooded at the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies.  George Washington and many of his Virginia peers lost a bit of money in a venture aimed at developing the swamp as an inland waterway.

Great Dismal Swamp

Little of this has anything to do with the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies but geography often dictates history.  And so I expand on that idea a bit. The British government's main advantage over their rebellious colonies was the Royal Navy. They had the largest and best navy in the world and the Americans had none at the war's start. However, navies need ports to make them most effective - and North Carolina had few of note. To that end, the Outer Banks served as a more than 100-mile long barrier against British naval supremacy in North Carolina. This limited British operations from the sea and thus no naval actions of note took place there. Late in the war, when the British invaded North Carolina, they did so over land, and the series of events leading to Yorktown ensued.

Fort George marker 

But further, down the coast from the Banks, there was an attempt to maintain a coastal base at New Bern, Wilmington, and Bald Head Island, which guards the mouth of the Cape Fear River. The main British forts were Fort George (on Bald Head itself) and Fort Johnston. The British clung to these but never found a way to exploit them, thanks to aggressive patriot actions that continued throughout the war.

How I Spent My Summer Vacation

New York - resort?

I took my annual summer resort vacation...in New York City! Now many folks wouldn't think of New York City as a resort and certainly not as a summer resort. But for most of its history, New York was precisely that - especially for the poor and middle class that make/made up so much of the city's populace. Why? Because they couldn't afford the time or the money to reach out to the numerous lakes in the mountains north of town or the expansive beaches of eastern Long Island. Nope, hundreds of thousands made do with the likes of the Bronx's Orchard Beach and City Island. The trolley and later the subway brought droves to Brooklyn's Coney Island, Manhattan Beach, Plum Beach, and Brighton Beach. Sheepshead Bay (it looks like a sheep's head from the air) offers deep-sea fishing at a reasonable price. And the prime resort area remains the Rockaways.  Queens's seven mile-plus stretch of sand from Far Rockaway to Rockaway Point with views of New Jersey's Atlantic Highlands provides some of the finest beaches on the east coast.

Some work - some play

Although I was in Rockaway, this year my resort activity was somewhat curtailed.  I was under a deadline to get the edited manuscript of The Cavalier Spy reviewed and back to the publisher (done). So my summer fun in the sun was restricted to a one day visit to the beach. However, I took advantage of a special deal set up by NYC as a result of Hurricane Sandy.  Because of Sandy's impact on mass transit in the Rockaways, the city contracted a fast boat to go from Beach 108th Street and Jamaica Bay around the end of the Rockaways and up New York bay to lower  Manhattan. Readers of The Patriot Spy know Manhattan was called The Island of New York during the time of the American Revolution. The trip takes an average of 38 minutes each way for the round trip cost of $4! Like that, badabing, you are staring up at the lofty buildings of New York's financial district.  So what the heck does this have to do with the American Revolution? Well, the boat ride passed many of the critical points of the British invasion of New York back in the summer of 1776.

Sailing into the past

British cross the harbor towards Gravesend Bay

As the boat eased out of Jamaica Bay and turned into New York's impressive lower harbor, I could look to the southwest and see Sandy Hook, New Jersey. But back in 1776, the Sandy Hook included a sand bar that blocked the lower harbor, preventing large British warships from crossing over it except during extreme high tide. A few minutes later we were approaching the Verrazano Narrows. The British went through the narrows and landed an army of twenty-four thousand or so on Staten Island, then a Tory stronghold. After recovering for a few weeks they launched barges and longboats across the narrows and landed troops at Gravesend Bay. This was on my right (starboard side) just before I reached the narrows, not far from today's Fort Hamilton. The few American defenders there ran off at the sight of the British. We continued on another ten minutes with Bayonne on our port and Bay Ridge, then Red Hook, on our starboard. Near Red Hook is the Gowanus Canal: the remnant of the Gowanus Creek that played such a critical role in Washington's defenses on Long Island. The boat soon approached Governor's Island, where the Royal Governors resided during colonial times.  The last  Royal Governor of colonial New York, nasty William Tryon, evacuated a year earlier but returned in 1776 with the British armada.

The Sea Streak sails from the Rockaway peninsula on the lower right and up
the harbor to the lower extreme of Manhattan. Note the narrows and
 Governors Island. The Sandy Hook is just off the bottom of the photo,

The final heading

The Gloucester Regiment evacuates Washington's army from its defenses
near the Heights of Brooklyn

Passing the narrow channel between Governor's Island and Brooklyn, the boat entered the waters of the lower East River. To our starboard front lay Brooklyn Heights, just south of the famed Brooklyn Bridge. This was the location of Washington's headquarters during the battle for Long Island, and the point from which the Gloucester seamen evacuated the beleaguered army on a stormy night with the British front lines not more than a few hundred yards distant! The crossing from Brooklyn to New York was considerably wider than it is today, as the Manhattan's expansive use of landfill has narrowed the river by almost a quarter-mile.

The (old) City of New York

We arrived at lower New York, which during the time of the Yankee Doodle Spies extended not too far beyond today's Wall Street. We landed in the lower central portion of this image of early colonial New York. Note how the city abruptly ends at the Wall Street, it extended past Chambers Street by the mid-1700s.

Pearl Street was a contemporary thoroughfare about a half-mile north of where we landed. It probably looked little different from this image from the Dutch era, although the docks and buildings would be more extensive as the city had grown. I will do a future blog on some of the revolutionary war era sites that still remain in the city.  Of course, the march of history (not progress) has limited them to only a few.

Dutch-style buildings still dominated New York during the
time of the Yankee Doodle Spies

I

Espionage: Born on the 4th of July

Thomas Jefferson

The birth of our nation is rightly celebrated on the 4th of July, although the actual signing was not on the fourth and Thomas Jefferson drafted what is perhaps the most famous document in the world between the 21st and 28th of June, 1776.  But, as of the 4th of July, the British colonies in North America were no longer fighting for their rights as Englishmen, but for their independence as a sovereign nation.



What has this to do with espionage and the Yankee Doodle Spies?  Well, everything. The Yankee Doodle Spies are stories of action and espionage during the American Revolution. Counterintelligence plays no small role in the stories and its prime purpose is to root out spies to be prosecuted for treason.  Espionage is a legal term for treason acted out by passing a nation's secrets to a foreign power.  So, you have to have a nation to have treason, and by extension, you have to have a nation to have espionage.



Intelligence gathering was a little known but widespread activity by both sides throughout the eight year war that was the American Revolution. One famous (or infamous) spy during the war was Doctor Benjamin Church.  In the environs of Boston, this chief medical officer for the rebel army passed secrets to the British high command through his mistress in Boston.  His mistress betrayed him. Exposed and convicted at court martial - he could not be found guilty of treason (espionage) because as British subjects, the rebels came under British law and treason (espionage) could only be committed against the King.  The irony was rich!

Church was nonetheless kept under arrest for some years and finally exchanged in 1778.  He died when the ship he was returning to England in was lost in a storm at sea.



Had Church been identified after July 4th 1776, however, he would have been traitor to a nation and thus guilty of treason (espionage).  The states had committees for detecting spies, but these were informal and poorly coordinated efforts that often confused misplaced loyalty with treason.  As Americans celebrate the birth of our nation with the usual parades, fireworks and barbecues, we should keep in mind that the Declaration of Independence, which birthed the world's first modern republic and set the precedent that ideas can challenge dynasties...created the political and military conditions for a counterintelligence service that could ultimately bring charges of espionage against traitors to the Glorious Cause.

Signing the Declaration of Independence